HOW DESIRABLE IS GENDER EQUALITY IN THE RURAL LABOUR MARKET? THE EVIDENCE FROM SPAIN AND POLAND
Abstract
The article focuses on women’s situation in the labour market in rural areas compared to men and on determinants that influence the labour market supply in Poland and Spain. The article examines these countries’ levels of gender parity. Through the theory of labour supply, the work presents problems women face when trying to participate in the labour force and wasted potential caused by lower performance compared to men. The methods applied in the research include: a critical literature review in order to place the research in its proper context and show the extension of the research beyond the state-of-the-art, as well as statistical analyses based on the data from national and European databases to show the statistically significant differences between the groups in question such as demographic, legal, socio-cultural and economic aspects. The paper concludes that women in rural areas, besides being more educated, have lower participation in the labour market. The gender gaps considering economic activity and gender pay gaps are higher in rural areas than in urban ones. The level of gaps are quite high in both countries. Lower wages in the occupations chosen by women, having different categories when choosing a job or rural areas specifics (higher number of children, more traditional household division of labour), among others, may be the reasons for gender gaps.
Keywords
rural areas; rural women; gender equality; labour market; Europe
References
Alonso, N., Trillo, D. (2014). Women, rural environment and entrepreneurship. Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci., 161, 149–155. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.039.
Auer, P., Fortuny, M., Sengenberger, W. (2000). Ageing of the Labour Force in OECD Countries: Economic and Social Consequences.
Balcerzak-Paradowska, B., Głogosz, D., Hebda-Czaplicka, I., Kołaczek, B., Szymborski, J. (2012). Założenia polityki ludnościowej w Polsce. https://www.ipiss.com.pl/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2012/08/politykaludosciowa.pdf
Barón, J.D., Cobb-Clark, D.A. (2008). Occupational Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap in Private- and Public-Sector Employment: A Distributional Analysis.
Birch, E.R. (2005). Studies of the labour supply of Australian women: What have we learned? Econ. Record, 81(252), 65–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4932.2005.00211.x.
Błaszczyk, A., Sawicka, J. (2018). Wpływ programu 500 Plus na ewolucję demograficzną polskiego społeczeństwa. Gosp. Prakt. Teor., 53(4), 7–25. doi: 10.18778/1429-3730.53.01
Blundell, R., Macurdy, T. (1999). Labor supply: A review of alternative approaches, Chapter 27. In: Handbook of Labor Economics (pp. 1559–1695), Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/S1573-4463(99)03008-4.
Borjas, G.J. (2013). Labour economics (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Can Bertay, A., Dordevic, L., Sever, C. (2020). Gender Inequality and Economic Growth: Evidence from Industry-Level Data, WP/20/119, July 2020. Retrieved Jan 20th 2021 from: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3658594
Card, D., Lemieux, T., Riddell, W.C. (2003). Unionization and Wage Inequality: A Comparative Study of the U.S., the U.K., and Can-ada. NBER Work. Pap. Retrieved Jan 20th 2021 from: https://ideas.repec.org/p/nbr/nberwo/9473.html
Cassells, R., Vidyattama, Y., Miranti, R., McNamara, J. (2009). The impact of a sustained gender wage gap on the Australian economy Report to the Office for Women, Department of Families, Community Services, Housing and Indigenous Affairs. Retrieved Jan 20th 2021 from: http://www.ag.gov.au/cca
Cipollone, A., Patacchini, E., Vallanti, G. (2014). Female labour market participation in Europe: novel evidence on trends and shaping factors. IZA J. Eur. Labor Stud., 3(18). http://www.izajoels.com/content/3/1/18
Ehrenberg, R.G., Smith, R.S. (2012). Modern labor economics. Routledge.
European Commision (2021). The gender pay gap situation in the EU. Retrieved Dec 13th 2022 from: https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/gender-equality/equal-pay/gender-pay-gap-situation-eu_en
Eurostat (2016). Regional statistics by typology (reg_typ). Retrieved Jan 20th 2021 from: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/en/reg_typ_esms.htm
Farré, L., Vella, F. (2013). The intergenerational transmission of gender role attitudes and its implications for female labour force par-ticipation. Economica, 80(318), 219–247. doi: 10.1111/ecca.12008
García Álvarez-Coque, J.M. (2021). Despoblación Rural. Problemas y soluciones. Valencia: Editorial Universitat Politècnica de Valèn-cia. Retrieved Feb 11th 2022 from: https://gdocu.upv.es/alfresco/service/api/node/content/workspace/SpacesStore/24e51f2d-dca0-4bb8-b9a9-54d5468d1d05/6647.pdf?guest=true
Grimshaw, D., Fagan, C., Hebson, G., Tavora, I. (2017). Making work more equal. Manchester Univeristy Press. https://
doi.org/10.7765/9781526125972
International Labour Office (2010). Women in labour markets: Measuring progress and identifying challenges. Geneva. Retrieved Mar 4th 2021 from: http://www.ilo.org/publns
Kimmel, M. (2000). The gendered society. Retrieved Jan 13th 2021 from: https://books.google.es/books?hl=pl&lr=&id=ExjWDtstbQYC&oi=fnd&pg=PP12&dq=The+Gendered+Society+kimmel&ots=USBFKIwFqd&sig=OpbSp-1Nnye2SkoqHUcyUfHvGXw
Kwiatkowski, E., Kryńska, E. (2013). Podstawy wiedzy o rynku pracy. Retrieved Jan 20th 2021 from: https://ksiegarnia.pwn.pl/Podstawy-wiedzy-o-rynku-pracy,119868671,
p.html
Löfström, Å. (2009). Gender eqiality, economic growth and employment. Retrieved Feb 23rd 2021 from: http://data.epws.org.s3.amazonaws.com/DOCUMENTS/WEBSITE2016/EUstudie_sidvis.pdf
Lumsdaine, R.L. (1996). Factors affecting labor supply decisions and retirement income, National Research Council. National Acade-mies Press. doi: 10.17226/5367.
Magda, I., Kiełczewska, A., Brandt, N. (2018). The “Family 500+” Child Allowance and Female Labour Supply in Poland. IBS Work-ing Paper, 1481.
Martinez León, M., Miguel Gómez, D. (2018). La importancia de la mujer en el medio rural español. Cartagena. Retireved Feb 14th 2022 from: https://www.upct.es/~economia/PUBLI-INO/IMPORTANCIA DE LA MUJER EN EL MEDIO RURAL.pdf
Merluzzi, J., Dobrev, S.D. (2015). Unequal on top: Gender profiling and the income gap among high earner male and female profes-sionals. Soc. Sci. Res., 53, 45–58. doi: 10.1016/J.SSRESEARCH.2015.04.010.
Michalska, S. (2013). Tradycyjne i nowe role kobiet wiejskich. Wieś Roln. Retrieved Feb 10th 2021 from: https://kwartalnik.irwirpan.waw.pl/wir/article/view/442
OpenStax Economics (2016). Demand and Supply at Work in Labor Markets. In: Principles of economics. OpenStax.
Peetz, D. (2017). Regulation distance, labor segmentation, and gender gaps. In: Women, Labor Segmentation and Regulation: Varieties of Gender Gaps (pp. 3–22). Palgrave Macmillan. doi: 10.1057/978-1-137-55495-6_1
Pencavel, J. (2001). Labor supply. In: International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp. 8205–8214). Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/02279-8.
Porterfield, S.L. (2002). Work choices of mothers in families with children with disabilities. J. Marr. Fam., 64(4), 972–981. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00972.x.
Roser, M. (2014). Fertility Rate, Our World in Data. Retrieved Jan 20th 2021 from: https://ourworldindata.org/fertility-rate
Rubbers, B. (2019). Mining boom, labour market segmentation and social inequality in the Congolese Copperbelt. doi: 10.1111/dech.12531.
Sandberg, S. (2013). Lean in for graduates: with new chapters by experts, including find your first job, negotiate your salary, and own who you are.
Shreeves, R. (2021). Women in politics in the EU: State of play. Think Tank European Parliament.
Sterling, D. (2015). Inspiring the next generation of female engineers. TEDxPSU. Retrieved Feb 5th 2021 from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FEeTLopLkEo&ab_channel=TEDxTalks
UNICEF (2019). Dzieci w Polsce | Rodzina – Model rodziny, UNICEF. Retrieved Feb 23rd 2021 from: https://www.dzieciwpolsce.pl/analiza/17/model-rodziny
Uunk, W., Kalmijn, M., Muffels, R. (2005). The impact of young children on women’s labour supply. Acta Soc., 48(1), 41–62. doi: 10.1177/0001699305050986.
Woetzel, J. (2015). The power of parity: How advancing women’s equality can add $12 trillion to global growth. Retrieved Jan 20th 2021 from: https://ideas.repec.org/p/ess/wpaper/id7570.html
World Economic Forum (2019). Insight report global gender gap report 2020. Retrieved Feb 11th 2022 from: http://www.weforum.org
World Economic Forum (2022). Global Gender Gap Report 2022. Retrieved Dec 9th 2022 from: https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2022?DAG=3&gclid=Cj0KCQiA1sucBhDgARIsAFoytUve4Z8baUXz6P1a4YaH9c0D9Pb12ovFzQB4OxTMU3-ZxeW63BN_HvYaAhJKEALw_wcB
Institute of Rural and Agricultural Development Poland
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
This journal permits and encourages authors to post items submitted to the journal on personal websites or institutional repositories both prior to and after publication, while providing bibliographic details that credit, if applicable, its publication in this journal.
