DETERMINANTS OF MARKET CHOICE AMONG AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES IN SOUTH AFRICA
Abstract
The potential of agricultural cooperatives to foster socioeconomic development is a critical issue in developing countries. This study examines the factors that influence market choice among South African agricultural cooperatives. Data for 381 agricultural cooperatives were collected from the Cooperative Data Analysis System, drawn from the original database of 3,197 cases from 2017. Cases with missing observations were omitted. A multivariate approach utilising principal component analysis and K-means clustering was employed to identify the typologies of market choices. Multinomial logistic regression was then applied to determine the factors influencing agricultural cooperatives’ choice of market typologies. The study reveals that the financial and social efficiency of agricultural cooperatives, the age of the institution, the square of the age of the institution, ownership of livestock, cooperative size, and credit access all influence market typology selection. Training programs such as those in financial management, corporate governance, accounting and bookkeeping, management committees, and the number of managers in cooperatives also impact cooperatives’ market choice. The findings of this study should facilitate the design of policies that cater to cooperatives encountering diverse market choices. By influencing the choices of agricultural cooperatives, stakeholders can contribute to more meaningful cooperative involvement in markets.
Keywords
financial efficiency; social efficiency; market choice; agricultural cooperatives; South Africa
References
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Alene, A.D., Manyong, V.M., Omanya, G., Mignouna, H., Bokanga, M., Odhiambo, G. (2008). Smallholder market participation under transactions costs: Maize supply and fertiliser demand in Kenya. Food Polic., 33(4), 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2007.12.001
Alinovi, L., D’Errico, M., Mane, E., Romano, D. (2010). Livelihoods strategies and household resilience to food insecurity: An empirical analysis to Kenya. European report on Development, 1–52. Retrieved from: https://socialprotection.org/sites/default/files/publications_files/alinovi-romano-d_errico-mane_livelihoods_resilience_food_insecurity_kenya.pdf
Alinovi, L., Mane, E., Romano, D. (2009). Measuring household resilience to food insecurity. EC-FAO Food Security Programme Roma. Retrieved from: https://www.fao.org/agrifood-economics/publications/detail/en/c/122589/
Barham, J., Chitemi, C. (2009). Collective action initiatives to improve marketing performance: Lessons from farmer groups in Tanzania. Food Polic., 34, 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.002
Bennett, B., Rich, K.M. (2019). Using preferential trade access to promote global development goals: the case of beef and market access to Norway from Namibia and Botswana. Agrekon, 58(4), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2019.1636669
Benos, T., Sergaki, P., Kalogeras, N., Tzinalas, D. (2023). Coping with side‐selling in cooperatives: A members’ perspective. Ann. Publ. Coop. Econ., 95(1), 177–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12414
Bernard, T., Spielman, D.J. (2009). Reaching the rural poor through rural producer organisations? A study of agricultural marketing cooperatives in Ethiopia. Food Policy, 34(1), 60–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.08.001
Bibi, U., Balli, H.O., Matthews, C.D., Tripe, D.W.L. (2018). Impact of gender and governance on microfinance efficiency. J. Int. Fin. Market. Instit. Money, 53, 307–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intfin.2017.12.008
Borda-Rodriguez, A., Vicari, S. (2014). Rural cooperative resilience: the case of Malawi. J. Coop. Org. Manag., 2(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcom.2014.03.002
Chamberlin, J., Jayne, T.S. (2013). Unpacking the meaning of ‘market access’: evidence from rural Kenya. World Dev., 41, 245–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.06.004
Chibanda, M., Ortmann, G.F., Lyne, M.C. (2009). Institutional and governance factors influencing the performance of selected smallholder agricultural cooperatives in KwaZulu-Natal. Agrekon, 48(3), 293–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2009.9523828
Ciani, F., Romano, D. (2014). Testing for household resilience to food insecurity: Evidence from Nicaragua. Retrieved from: https://www.siecon.org/sites/siecon.org/files/oldfiles/uploads/2013/09/Ciani-Romano.pdf
Costello, A.B., Osborne, J.W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Pract. Assess. Res. Eval., 10(10), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.7275/jyj1-4868
DAFF (2015). The 4th Annual Report on the Status of Cooperatives in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 2014/15. In: Department oAgriculture, F.A.F. (ed.). Pretoria: Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
Diniz, F.H., Hoogstra-Klein, M.A., Kok, K., Arts, B. (2013). Livelihood strategies in settlement projects in the Brazilian Amazon: determining drivers and factors within the Agrarian Reform Program. J. Rural Stud., 32, 196–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2013.06.005
Dossa, L.H., Abdulkadir, A., Amadou, H., Sangare, S., Schlecht, E. (2011). Exploring the diversity of urban and peri-urban agricultural systems in Sudano-Sahelian West Africa: an attempt towards a regional typology. Landscape and urban planning, 102(3), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.04.005
Fernandes Filipa da, S., Stasinakis, C., Bardarova, V. (2018). Two-stage DEA-Truncated Regression: Application in banking efficiency and financial development. Expert Syst. Appl., 96, 284–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2017.12.010
Gadzikwa, L., Lyne, M., Hendriks, S. (2006). Collective action in smallholder organic farming: A study of the Ezemvelo Farmer’ Organisation in Kwazulu‐Natal. South Afr. J. Econ., 74, 344–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1813-6982.2006.00070.x
Garson, D. (2009). Reliability analysis. [Online]. Retrieved Sep 15th 2017 from: http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/reliab.htm
Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (vol. 6), Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River.
Heijden, T.V.D., Vink, N. (2013). Good for whom? Supermarkets and small farmers in South Africa – a critical review of current approaches to increasing access to modern markets. Agrekon, 52(1), 68–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2013.778466
Hellin, J., Lundy, M., Meijer, M. (2009). Farmer organisation, collective action and market access in Meso-America. Food Policy, 34(1), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.003
Hintz, K.S., Pretzsch, J. (2023). Co‐creation of business models for smallholder forest farmers’ organisations: Lessons learned from rural Ethiopia and Tanzania. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12416
Hoefele, A., Schmidt‐Eisenlohr, T., Yu, Z. (2016). Payment choice in international trade: Theory and evidence from cross‐country firm‐level data. Canad. J. Econ./Rev. canad. écon., 49(1), 296–319. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43974481
Iliopoulos, C., Cook, M.L. (1999). The internal organisation of the cooperative firm: an extension of a new institutional digest. J. Cooper., 14, 77–85. retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227366642_The_Internal_Organization_of_the_Cooperative_Firm_An_Extension_of_a_New_Institutional_Digest
Iliopoulos, C., Valentinov, V. (2018). Cooperative longevity: Why are so many cooperatives so successful? Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.
Ito, J., Bao, Z., Su, Q. (2012). Distributional effects of agricultural cooperatives in China: Exclusion of smallholders and potential gains on participation. Food Policy, 37(6), 700–709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.07.009
Jolliffe, I.T. (2002). Principal component analysis and factor analysis. Principal component analysis.
Kamara, A.B. (2004). The impact of market access on input use and agricultural productivity: Evidence from Machakos District, Kenya. Agrekon, 43, 202–216. Retrieved from: https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC18275
Karaca‐Mandic, P., Norton, E.C., Dowd, B. (2012). Interaction terms in nonlinear models. Health Services Research, 47(1), 255–274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2011.01314.x
Kaur, M., Kaur, U. (2013). Comparison between K-means and hierarchical algorithm using query redirection. Int. J. Adv. Res. Comp. Sci. Soft. Eng., 3, 1454–1459.
Mango, N., Makate, C., Francesconi, N., Jager, M., Lundy, M. (2018). Determinants of market participation and marketing channels in smallholder groundnut farming: A case of Mudzi district, Zimbabwe. Afr. J. Sci. Technol. Innov. Dev., 10, 311–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2018.1457274
Manly, B.F. (2005). Tests of significance with multivariate data. Multivariate statistical methods: a primer (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall.
Markelova, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Hellin, J., Dohrn, S. (2009). Collective action for smallholder market access. Food Policy, 34(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.001
Mutenje, M., Ortmann, G., Ferrer, S., Darroch, M. (2010). Rural livelihood diversity to manage economic shocks: Evidence from south-east Zimbabwe. Agrekon, 49, 338–357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2010.503381
Nainggolan, D., Termansen, M., Reed, M.S., Cebollero, E.D., Hubacek, K. (2013). Farmer typology, future scenarios and the implications for ecosystem service provision: a case study from south-eastern Spain. Regional Environmental Change, 13, 601–614. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10113-011-0261-6
Neupane, H., Paudel, K.P., Adhikari, M., He, Q. (2022). Impact of cooperative membership on production efficiency of smallholder goat farmers in Nepal. Ann. Publ. Coop. Econ., 93(2), 337–356. https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12416
Nganwa, P., Lyne, M., Ferrer, S. (2010). What will South Africa’s new Cooperatives Act do for small producers? An analysis of three case studies in KwaZulu-Natal. Agrekon, 49, 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031851003798561
Norton, E.C., Wang, H., Ai, C. (2003). Computing interaction effects and standard errors in logit and probit models. Stata J., 4(2), 154–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867
X0400400206
Okoye, B.C., Abass, A., Bachwenkizi, B., Asumugha, G., Alenkhe, B., Ranaivoson, R., Randrianarivelo, R., Rabemanantsoa, N., Ralimanana, I. (2016). Effect of transaction costs on market participation among smallholder cassava farmers in Central Madagascar. Cogent Econ. Fin., 4(1), 1143597. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2016.
1143597
Ortmann, G.F., King, R.P. (2007a). Agricultural Cooperatives I: History, Theory and Problems. Agrekon, 46, 18–46. Retrieved from: https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC18357
Ortmann, G.F., King, R.P. (2007b). Agricultural cooperatives II: Can they facilitate access of small-scale farmers in South Africa to input and product markets? Agrekon, 46, 219–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2007.9523769
Randela, R., Alemu, Z.G., Groenewald, J.A. (2008). Factors enhancing market participation by small-scale cotton farmers. Agrekon, 47, 451–469. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2008.9523810
Sánchez‐Navarro, J.L., Arcas‐Lario, N., Hernández‐Espallardo, M. (2023). Identifying the antecedents of opportunism in agri‐food cooperatives: a comparative analysis between first‐and second‐tier cooperatives. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12416
Sparks, G., Ortmann, G., Lyne, M. (2011). A normative economic analysis of cooperative biodiesel production using soybeans produced by smallholders in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Agrekon, 50, 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2011.617861
Stewart, C., Matousek, R., Nguyen, T.N. (2016). Efficiency in the Vietnamese banking system: A DEA double bootstrap approach. Research in International Business and Finance, 36, 96–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ribaf.2015.09.006
Train, K.E. (2009). Discrete choice methods with simulation. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Twine, W. (2013). Multiple strategies for resilient livelihoods in communal areas of South Africa. Afr. J. Rang. Forag. Sci., 30, 39–43. https://doi.org/10.2989%2F10220
119.2013.768703
Verhofstadt, E., Maertens, M. (2014). Smallholder cooperatives and agricultural performance in Rwanda: do organisational differences matter? Agric. Econ., 45 (S1), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12128
Wijesiri, M., Meoli, M. (2015). Productivity change of microfinance institutions in Kenya: A bootstrap Malmquist approach. J. Retail. Consum. Serv., 25, 115–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2015.04.004
Wijesiri, M., Viganò, L., Meoli, M. (2015). Efficiency of microfinance institutions in Sri Lanka: a two-stage double bootstrap DEA approach. Econ. Model., 47, 74–83. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2015.02.016
Yobe, C.L., Ferrer, S.R., Mudhara, M. (2022). The financial and social efficiency of rural cooperatives in South Africa. Afr. J. Sci. Technol. Innov. Dev., 14, 546–555. https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2020.1866146
Yobe, C.L., Mudhara, M., Mafongoya, P. (2019). Livelihood strategies and their determinants among smallholder farming households in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. Agrekon, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2019.
1608275
Yobe, C., Ferrer, S., Mudhara, M. (2020). Measuring the financial efficiency of agricultural cooperatives in South Africa: an application of the Simar–Wilson methodology. Agrekon, 59, 269–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2020.1761845
Alene, A.D., Manyong, V.M., Omanya, G., Mignouna, H., Bokanga, M., Odhiambo, G. (2008). Smallholder market participation under transactions costs: Maize supply and fertiliser demand in Kenya. Food Polic., 33(4), 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2007.12.001
Alinovi, L., D’Errico, M., Mane, E., Romano, D. (2010). Livelihoods strategies and household resilience to food insecurity: An empirical analysis to Kenya. European report on Development, 1–52. Retrieved from: https://socialprotection.org/sites/default/files/publications_files/alinovi-romano-d_errico-mane_livelihoods_resilience_food_insecurity_kenya.pdf
Alinovi, L., Mane, E., Romano, D. (2009). Measuring household resilience to food insecurity. EC-FAO Food Security Programme Roma. Retrieved from: https://www.fao.org/agrifood-economics/publications/detail/en/c/122589/
Barham, J., Chitemi, C. (2009). Collective action initiatives to improve marketing performance: Lessons from farmer groups in Tanzania. Food Polic., 34, 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.002
Bennett, B., Rich, K.M. (2019). Using preferential trade access to promote global development goals: the case of beef and market access to Norway from Namibia and Botswana. Agrekon, 58(4), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2019.1636669
Benos, T., Sergaki, P., Kalogeras, N., Tzinalas, D. (2023). Coping with side‐selling in cooperatives: A members’ perspective. Ann. Publ. Coop. Econ., 95(1), 177–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12414
Bernard, T., Spielman, D.J. (2009). Reaching the rural poor through rural producer organisations? A study of agricultural marketing cooperatives in Ethiopia. Food Policy, 34(1), 60–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.08.001
Bibi, U., Balli, H.O., Matthews, C.D., Tripe, D.W.L. (2018). Impact of gender and governance on microfinance efficiency. J. Int. Fin. Market. Instit. Money, 53, 307–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intfin.2017.12.008
Borda-Rodriguez, A., Vicari, S. (2014). Rural cooperative resilience: the case of Malawi. J. Coop. Org. Manag., 2(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcom.2014.03.002
Chamberlin, J., Jayne, T.S. (2013). Unpacking the meaning of ‘market access’: evidence from rural Kenya. World Dev., 41, 245–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.06.004
Chibanda, M., Ortmann, G.F., Lyne, M.C. (2009). Institutional and governance factors influencing the performance of selected smallholder agricultural cooperatives in KwaZulu-Natal. Agrekon, 48(3), 293–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2009.9523828
Ciani, F., Romano, D. (2014). Testing for household resilience to food insecurity: Evidence from Nicaragua. Retrieved from: https://www.siecon.org/sites/siecon.org/files/oldfiles/uploads/2013/09/Ciani-Romano.pdf
Costello, A.B., Osborne, J.W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Pract. Assess. Res. Eval., 10(10), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.7275/jyj1-4868
DAFF (2015). The 4th Annual Report on the Status of Cooperatives in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 2014/15. In: Department oAgriculture, F.A.F. (ed.). Pretoria: Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
Diniz, F.H., Hoogstra-Klein, M.A., Kok, K., Arts, B. (2013). Livelihood strategies in settlement projects in the Brazilian Amazon: determining drivers and factors within the Agrarian Reform Program. J. Rural Stud., 32, 196–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2013.06.005
Dossa, L.H., Abdulkadir, A., Amadou, H., Sangare, S., Schlecht, E. (2011). Exploring the diversity of urban and peri-urban agricultural systems in Sudano-Sahelian West Africa: an attempt towards a regional typology. Landscape and urban planning, 102(3), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.04.005
Fernandes Filipa da, S., Stasinakis, C., Bardarova, V. (2018). Two-stage DEA-Truncated Regression: Application in banking efficiency and financial development. Expert Syst. Appl., 96, 284–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2017.12.010
Gadzikwa, L., Lyne, M., Hendriks, S. (2006). Collective action in smallholder organic farming: A study of the Ezemvelo Farmer’ Organisation in Kwazulu‐Natal. South Afr. J. Econ., 74, 344–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1813-6982.2006.00070.x
Garson, D. (2009). Reliability analysis. [Online]. Retrieved Sep 15th 2017 from: http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/reliab.htm
Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (vol. 6), Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River.
Heijden, T.V.D., Vink, N. (2013). Good for whom? Supermarkets and small farmers in South Africa – a critical review of current approaches to increasing access to modern markets. Agrekon, 52(1), 68–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2013.778466
Hellin, J., Lundy, M., Meijer, M. (2009). Farmer organisation, collective action and market access in Meso-America. Food Policy, 34(1), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.003
Hintz, K.S., Pretzsch, J. (2023). Co‐creation of business models for smallholder forest farmers’ organisations: Lessons learned from rural Ethiopia and Tanzania. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12416
Hoefele, A., Schmidt‐Eisenlohr, T., Yu, Z. (2016). Payment choice in international trade: Theory and evidence from cross‐country firm‐level data. Canad. J. Econ./Rev. canad. écon., 49(1), 296–319. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43974481
Iliopoulos, C., Cook, M.L. (1999). The internal organisation of the cooperative firm: an extension of a new institutional digest. J. Cooper., 14, 77–85. retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227366642_The_Internal_Organization_of_the_Cooperative_Firm_An_Extension_of_a_New_Institutional_Digest
Iliopoulos, C., Valentinov, V. (2018). Cooperative longevity: Why are so many cooperatives so successful? Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.
Ito, J., Bao, Z., Su, Q. (2012). Distributional effects of agricultural cooperatives in China: Exclusion of smallholders and potential gains on participation. Food Policy, 37(6), 700–709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.07.009
Jolliffe, I.T. (2002). Principal component analysis and factor analysis. Principal component analysis.
Kamara, A.B. (2004). The impact of market access on input use and agricultural productivity: Evidence from Machakos District, Kenya. Agrekon, 43, 202–216. Retrieved from: https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC18275
Karaca‐Mandic, P., Norton, E.C., Dowd, B. (2012). Interaction terms in nonlinear models. Health Services Research, 47(1), 255–274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2011.01314.x
Kaur, M., Kaur, U. (2013). Comparison between K-means and hierarchical algorithm using query redirection. Int. J. Adv. Res. Comp. Sci. Soft. Eng., 3, 1454–1459.
Mango, N., Makate, C., Francesconi, N., Jager, M., Lundy, M. (2018). Determinants of market participation and marketing channels in smallholder groundnut farming: A case of Mudzi district, Zimbabwe. Afr. J. Sci. Technol. Innov. Dev., 10, 311–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2018.1457274
Manly, B.F. (2005). Tests of significance with multivariate data. Multivariate statistical methods: a primer (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall.
Markelova, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Hellin, J., Dohrn, S. (2009). Collective action for smallholder market access. Food Policy, 34(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.001
Mutenje, M., Ortmann, G., Ferrer, S., Darroch, M. (2010). Rural livelihood diversity to manage economic shocks: Evidence from south-east Zimbabwe. Agrekon, 49, 338–357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2010.503381
Nainggolan, D., Termansen, M., Reed, M.S., Cebollero, E.D., Hubacek, K. (2013). Farmer typology, future scenarios and the implications for ecosystem service provision: a case study from south-eastern Spain. Regional Environmental Change, 13, 601–614. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10113-011-0261-6
Neupane, H., Paudel, K.P., Adhikari, M., He, Q. (2022). Impact of cooperative membership on production efficiency of smallholder goat farmers in Nepal. Ann. Publ. Coop. Econ., 93(2), 337–356. https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12416
Nganwa, P., Lyne, M., Ferrer, S. (2010). What will South Africa’s new Cooperatives Act do for small producers? An analysis of three case studies in KwaZulu-Natal. Agrekon, 49, 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031851003798561
Norton, E.C., Wang, H., Ai, C. (2003). Computing interaction effects and standard errors in logit and probit models. Stata J., 4(2), 154–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867
X0400400206
Okoye, B.C., Abass, A., Bachwenkizi, B., Asumugha, G., Alenkhe, B., Ranaivoson, R., Randrianarivelo, R., Rabemanantsoa, N., Ralimanana, I. (2016). Effect of transaction costs on market participation among smallholder cassava farmers in Central Madagascar. Cogent Econ. Fin., 4(1), 1143597. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2016.
1143597
Ortmann, G.F., King, R.P. (2007a). Agricultural Cooperatives I: History, Theory and Problems. Agrekon, 46, 18–46. Retrieved from: https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC18357
Ortmann, G.F., King, R.P. (2007b). Agricultural cooperatives II: Can they facilitate access of small-scale farmers in South Africa to input and product markets? Agrekon, 46, 219–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2007.9523769
Randela, R., Alemu, Z.G., Groenewald, J.A. (2008). Factors enhancing market participation by small-scale cotton farmers. Agrekon, 47, 451–469. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2008.9523810
Sánchez‐Navarro, J.L., Arcas‐Lario, N., Hernández‐Espallardo, M. (2023). Identifying the antecedents of opportunism in agri‐food cooperatives: a comparative analysis between first‐and second‐tier cooperatives. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12416
Sparks, G., Ortmann, G., Lyne, M. (2011). A normative economic analysis of cooperative biodiesel production using soybeans produced by smallholders in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Agrekon, 50, 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2011.617861
Stewart, C., Matousek, R., Nguyen, T.N. (2016). Efficiency in the Vietnamese banking system: A DEA double bootstrap approach. Research in International Business and Finance, 36, 96–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ribaf.2015.09.006
Train, K.E. (2009). Discrete choice methods with simulation. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Twine, W. (2013). Multiple strategies for resilient livelihoods in communal areas of South Africa. Afr. J. Rang. Forag. Sci., 30, 39–43. https://doi.org/10.2989%2F10220
119.2013.768703
Verhofstadt, E., Maertens, M. (2014). Smallholder cooperatives and agricultural performance in Rwanda: do organisational differences matter? Agric. Econ., 45 (S1), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12128
Wijesiri, M., Meoli, M. (2015). Productivity change of microfinance institutions in Kenya: A bootstrap Malmquist approach. J. Retail. Consum. Serv., 25, 115–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2015.04.004
Wijesiri, M., Viganò, L., Meoli, M. (2015). Efficiency of microfinance institutions in Sri Lanka: a two-stage double bootstrap DEA approach. Econ. Model., 47, 74–83. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2015.02.016
Yobe, C.L., Ferrer, S.R., Mudhara, M. (2022). The financial and social efficiency of rural cooperatives in South Africa. Afr. J. Sci. Technol. Innov. Dev., 14, 546–555. https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2020.1866146
Yobe, C.L., Mudhara, M., Mafongoya, P. (2019). Livelihood strategies and their determinants among smallholder farming households in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. Agrekon, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2019.
1608275
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Collin Yobe
collinyobe@gmail.com
1University of South Africa South Africa
1University of South Africa South Africa
Stuart Ferrer
2University of KwaZulu-Natal South Africa
2University of KwaZulu-Natal South Africa
Maxwell Mudhara
2University of KwaZulu-Natal South Africa
2University of KwaZulu-Natal South Africa
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