REVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN COUNTRIES. PROGRESS WITH PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT
Progress with Private Sector Involvement
Abstract
Agricultural extension and advisory services in Africa have significant impact on food security as well as economic and social development. Recent moves towards a pluralistic delivery system, facilitated by the emergence of private-sector led initiatives in many countries are the subject of policy and academic discourse. This study used an adapted, fit-for-purpose market systems development framework to review available research in extension and advisory services in selected sub-Sahara Africa countries. Using a literature survey methodology, we report evidence of multiple actors in extension delivery, findings that point towards evolution towards mixed delivery as well as objectives. While there are significant uptake of cost-recovery approaches among commercially-oriented farmers, many smallholder farmers still depended on donor-funded services. Our review adds to existing knowledge through incorporating a market systems development framework, which extends the often-used willingness to pay approach, and highlights the need for merger of both public and private-sector objectives to achieve developmental outcomes.
Keywords
approaches; extension; services; market systems; pluralistic; rural development; smallholder farmer
References
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Abdul-Raheem, K.A., Worth, S.H. (2016). Suggesting a New Paradigm for Agricultural Extension Policy: The Case of West African Countries. South Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 44(2), 216–230.
Adegbola, J.A., Bamishaye, E.I. (2013). Privatisation of Ag ricultural Extension Services in Nigeria: A Fallacy? Asian J. Agric. Ext. Econ. Sociol., 2(1), 14–22.
African Development Bank (2017). Africa’s Agricultural Transformation: Identifying Priority Areas and Overcom ing Challenges. Afr. Econ. Brief, 8, 3.
Amungwa, F.A. (2018). Appraisal of Innovations in Agricul tural Extension and Advisory Services in Cameroon. J. Adv. Plant Sci., 1(2), 1–9.
Amurtiya, M., Tashikalma, A.K., Chinda, M.D. (2018). Ag ricultural Inputs Subsidy in Nigeria: an Overview of the Growth Enhancement Support Scheme (GESS). Acta Univ. Agric. Silvicult. Mendel. Brun., 66(3), 781–789.
Anaeto, F.C., Asiabaka, C.C., Nnadi, F.O., Ajaero, J.O., Ajao, O., Ugwoke, O.F. (2012). The Role of Extension Officers and Extension Services in the Development of Agriculture in Nigeria. J. Agric. Res., 1(6), 180–185.
Baiyegunhi, L.J.S., Majokweni, Z.P., Ferrer, S.R.D. (2019). Impact of outsourced agricultural extension program on smallholder farmers’ net farm income in Msinga, KwaZu lu-Natal, South Africa. Technol. Soc., 57, 1–7.
Bebe, B.O., Gowland, M.J., Nicholas, O. (2016). Changes in agri-business outcomes among the dairy beneficiaries of contracted extension service delivery model in Kenya. J. Agric. Ext., 20(1), 53–65.
Berhanu, K., Poulton, C. (2014). The Political Economy of Agricultural Extension Policy in Ethiopia: Economic Growth and Political Control. Dev. Polic. Rev., 32(2), 197–213.
Birch, I. (2018). Agricultural productivity in Kenya: barriers and opportunities. K4D Helpdesk Report. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies.
Bitzer, V., Wennink, B., Piters, B.S. (2016). The Governance of Agricultural Extension Systems. KIT Working Papers 2016-01.
Chapota, R. (2020). Can extension and advisory services play a role in transforming smallholder farmers into business entities in Sub Saharan Africa? FARA Res. Report, 5(26).
Chimoita, E. (2014). Review of Agricultural Extension In terventions in Unlocking Agriculture Potential through Medium Sized Farms, Kenya. Technical Report to Equity Group Foundation, Agriculture Pillar. https:// pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7798/ef40de2bcca5f02e5c 91fa357ee2008be079.pdf
Davis, K., Franzel, S. (2018). Extension and Advisory Servic es in 10 Developing Countries: A Cross-Sectional Analy sis. USAID, Feed the Future DLEC Project, September 2018.
Davis, K.E., Terblanche, S.E. (2016). Challenges Facing the Agricultural Extension Landscape in South Africa, Quo Vadis? South Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 44(2), 231–247.
DLEC (2019). Strengthening Private Sector Extension and Advisory Services Portfolio Review. Developing Local Extension Capacity Project. Feed The Future. USAID Washington DC.
DLEC/GFRAS (2017). Nigeria: In-depth Assessment of Extension and Advisory Services. Developing Local Exten sion Capacity (DLEC) Project. USAID. Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services. March 2017.
Fa, A. (2018). Appraisal of innovations in agricultural exten sion and advisory services in Cameroon. J. Adv. Plant Sci., 1(2), 1–9.
FAO (1998). Improving Agricultural Extension: A reference Manual, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Gwary, M.M., Asindaya, Z., Abba, M.A. (2016). Public-pri vate partnership as panacea for effective extension service delivery: Review of experience and potential in Nigeria. Net J. Agric. Sci., 4(3), 50–55.
Heemskerk, W., Nederlof, S., Wennink, B. (2008). Outsourc ing agricultural advisory services: enhancing rural inno vation in sub-Saharan Africa. Bulletin No. 380. Develop ment Policy & Practice.
Ijatuyi, J.E., Mokone, B. (2018). A Narrative Review of the Assessment of Extension and Advisory Services on an Ag ricultural Development Project in North-West Province, South Africa. J. Int. Agric. Ext. Edu., 25(2), 87–99.
Jayne, T.S., Chamberlin, J., Traub, L., Sitko, N., Muyanga, M., Yeboah, F.K., Anseeuw, W., Chapoto, A., Wineman, A., Nkonde, C., Kachule, R. (2016). Africa’s changing farm size distribution patterns: the rise of medium-scale farms. Agric. Econ., 47, 197–214.
Kathoya, G., van der Lee, J. (2016). Status Report KMDP Training and Extension approaches. Integrate and con nect: Recommendations for KMDP’s approach and role in knowledge exchange and skills development in the Ken yan dairy industry. SNV.
Kidane, T.T., Worth, S.H. (2017). Different Agricultural Ex tension Systems Implemented in Africa: A Review. J. Hu man Ecol., 55(3), 183–195.
Kilelu, C.W., van der Lee, J., Opola, F. (2018). Enhancing knowledge and skills for the agri-food sector: The emerg ing market-led extension and advisory services in Kenya. 3R Kenya Project Issue Brief 002. Wageningen University and Research.
Ladele A.A. (2011). Approaches to Private Agricultural Ex tension Service Delivery in Africa: Lessons from Current Development Initiatives in Nigeria. International Confer ence Proceedings. Innovations in Extension and Advisory Services. Nov. 15-18. Nairobi, Kenya
Liebenberg, F. (2015). Agricultural Advisory Services in South Africa. Discussion Paper. Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development, University of Pretoria. South Africa.
Loki, O., Mudhara, M., Pakela-Jezire, Y., Mkhabela, T.S. (2019). Factors Influencing Land Reform Beneficiaries Willingness to Pay for Extension Services in Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. South Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 47(4), 29–45.
Lyne, M.C., Nomonde, J., Ortmann, G.F. (2018) A quantita tive assessment of an outsourced agricultural extension service in the Umzimkhulu District of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. J. Agric. Edu. Ext., 24(1), 51–64.
Machila, M., Lyne, M., Nuthall, P. (2015). Assessment of an outsourced agricultural extension service in the Mu tasa district of Zimbabwe. J. Agric. Ext. Rural Dev., 7(5), 142–149.
MALF-RoK (2017). Guidelines and Standards for Agricul tural Extension and Advisory Services. Ministry of Ag riculture, Livestock and Fisheries. Republic of Kenya. September 2017.
Mangheni, M.N. (2016). Transitioning from Public to Private Sector Agricultural Extension: Drivers, Challenges and Implications for Policy and Research. Knowledge for De velopment, Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA).
Mapiye, O., Makombe, G., Molotsi, A., Dzama, K., Mapiye, C. (2021). Towards a Revolutionized Agricultural Exten sion System for the Sustainability of Smallholder Live stock Production in Developing Countries: The Poten tial Role of ICTs. Sustainability, 13, 5868. https://doi. org/10.3390/su13115868
Masangano, C., Mthinda, C. (2012). Pluralistic Extension System in Malawi. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01171. April 2012. International Food Policy Research Institute.
Mgalama, P.V. (2014). The role of agricultural extension services in socio-economic development of East Africa: A critical review. Africanus, 44(1), 53–64.
Msuya, C.P., Annor-Frempong, F.K., Magheni, M.N., Agun ga, R., Igodan, C.O., Ladele, A.A., Huhela, K., Tselaesele, N.M., Msatilomo, H., Chowa, C., Zwane, E., Miiro, R., Bukeyn, C., Kima, L.A., Meliko, M., Ndiaye, A. (2017). The Role of Agricultural Extension in Africa’s Develop ment: The Importance of Extension Workers and The Need for Change. Int. J. Agric. Ext., 5(1), 59–70.
Mubangizi, N., Mangheni, M.N., Garforth, C.J. (2014). In formation sources and constraints under national agricul tural advisory services programme, of service providers in Uganda. Uganda J. Agric. Sci., 9(1), 257–264.
Nambiro, E., Chianu, J., Muraje, A. (2010). The Association of Agricultural Information Services and Technical Ef ficiency among Maize Producers in Kakamega, Western Kenya. Conference Paper, Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa (AEASA) Confer ence. September 19-23, 2010. Cape Town, South Africa.
Ngugi, J., Muigai, S., Muhoro, F. (2014). Transforming Ag riculture through Contracted Extension Service Delivery Systems: The Case of Kenya’s Agricultural Productiv ity and Agribusiness Project. Afr. Crop Sci. J., 22(4), 905–915.
Nkonya, E. (2009). Current Extension Models: What Works and What Does Not Work. Presentation at the “SLM and agricultural practices in Africa: Bridging the gap between research and farmers”. April 16 –17, 2009, University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
Norton, G.W., Alwang, J. (2020). Changes in Agricultural Extension and Implications for Farmer Adoption of New Practices. Appl. Econ. Persp. Pol., 42(1), 8–20.
Ogbonna, O.I., Onwubuya, E.A., Akinnagbe, O.M., Iwuchuk wu, J.C. (2016). Evaluating effectiveness and constraints of private sector agricultural extension services of the Green River Project in Imo and Rivers States, Nigeria. Afr. Eval. J., 4(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/aej.v4i1.118
Ragasa, C., Ulimwengu, J., Randriamamonjy, J., Badibanga, T. (2016). Factors affecting Performance of Agricultural Extension: Evidence from Democratic Republic of Con go. J. Agric. Edu. Exten., 22(2), 113–143.
Raidimi, E.N., Kabiti, H.M. (2017). Agricultural Extension, Research and Development for Increased Food Security: The Need for Public-Private Sector Partnerships in South Africa. S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 45(1), 49–63.
Rwamigisa, P.B., Birner, R., Mangheni, M.N., Semana, A. (2018). How to promote institutional reforms in the ag ricultural sector: A case study of Uganda’s National Ag ricultural Advisory Services (NAADS). Dev. Polic. Rev., 36(5), 607–627.
Saliu, J.O., Obinne, P.C., Audu, S.I. (2009). Trends in Agricul tural Extension Services in Africa: Options for New Ap proaches. J. Agric. Ext. Rural Dev., 1(3), 71–76.
Sanga, C., Kalungwizi, V.J., Msuya, C.P. (2014). Building an Extension Service System supported by ICTs in Tanzania: Progress Made, Challenges Remain. Int. J. Edu. Dev. Us ing Inf. Comm. Technol., 9(1), 80–99.
Springfield Centre (2014). The Operational Guide for the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, 2nd edition funded by SDC & DFID.
Swanson, B., Rajalahti, R. (2010). Strengthening agricultural extension and advisory systems: Procedures for assessing, transforming, and evaluating extension systems. Agriculture and Rural Development Discussion Paper 44. ARD, Washington, DC, USA: World Bank.
Sylla, A.Y., Al-Hassan, R.M., Egyir, I.S., Anim-Soumah, H. (2019). Perceptions about quality of public and private ag ricultural extension in Africa: Evidence from farmers in Burkina Faso. Cogent Food Agric., 5(1), 1685861.
Synder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research method ology: An overview and guidelines. J. Bus. Res., 104(1), 333–339.
Taye, H. (2013). Evaluating the impact of agricultural exten sion programmes in sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and prospects. Afr. Eval. J., 1(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/aej.v1i1.19
Touzard, J.M., Temple, L., Faure, G., Triomphe, B. (2014). Systèmes d’innovation et communautés de connaissances dans le secteur agricole et agroalimentaire. Innovations, 43, 13–38.
UNESCAP (2016). Increasing Productivity for Reviving Eco nomic Growth and Supporting Sustainable Development. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific.
USAID (2017). Guinea: Desk Study of Extension and Ad visory Services. Developing Local Extension Capacity (DLEC) Project. Feed the Future, October 2017.
Veldhuizen, L.R., van Rappoldt, A., Bitzer, V., Mur, R. (2018). Understanding agribusiness-based advisory services: Findings of a learning trajectory. KIT Royal Tropical In stitute, Amsterdam.
Wanyama, R., Mathenge, M.W., Mbaka, Z.S. (2016). Agricul tural information sources and their effect on farm produc tivity in Kenya. Tegemeo Institute of Agricultural Policy and Development, Working Paper Series No. 62/2016.
Wellard, K., Rafanomezana, J., Nyirenda, M., Okotel, M., Subbey, V. (2013). A Review of Community Extension Approaches to Innovation for Improved Livelihoods in Ghana, Uganda and Malawi. J. Agric. Edu. Ext., 19(1), 21–35.
Zwane, E.M. (2016). Perceptions of extension advisors on pri vatisation and outsourcing as an option for development paradigm in Limpopo province and the lessons for future. South Africa. S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 44(2), 71–83
Abdul-Raheem, K.A., Worth, S.H. (2016). Suggesting a New Paradigm for Agricultural Extension Policy: The Case of West African Countries. South Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 44(2), 216–230.
Adegbola, J.A., Bamishaye, E.I. (2013). Privatisation of Ag ricultural Extension Services in Nigeria: A Fallacy? Asian J. Agric. Ext. Econ. Sociol., 2(1), 14–22.
African Development Bank (2017). Africa’s Agricultural Transformation: Identifying Priority Areas and Overcom ing Challenges. Afr. Econ. Brief, 8, 3.
Amungwa, F.A. (2018). Appraisal of Innovations in Agricul tural Extension and Advisory Services in Cameroon. J. Adv. Plant Sci., 1(2), 1–9.
Amurtiya, M., Tashikalma, A.K., Chinda, M.D. (2018). Ag ricultural Inputs Subsidy in Nigeria: an Overview of the Growth Enhancement Support Scheme (GESS). Acta Univ. Agric. Silvicult. Mendel. Brun., 66(3), 781–789.
Anaeto, F.C., Asiabaka, C.C., Nnadi, F.O., Ajaero, J.O., Ajao, O., Ugwoke, O.F. (2012). The Role of Extension Officers and Extension Services in the Development of Agriculture in Nigeria. J. Agric. Res., 1(6), 180–185.
Baiyegunhi, L.J.S., Majokweni, Z.P., Ferrer, S.R.D. (2019). Impact of outsourced agricultural extension program on smallholder farmers’ net farm income in Msinga, KwaZu lu-Natal, South Africa. Technol. Soc., 57, 1–7.
Bebe, B.O., Gowland, M.J., Nicholas, O. (2016). Changes in agri-business outcomes among the dairy beneficiaries of contracted extension service delivery model in Kenya. J. Agric. Ext., 20(1), 53–65.
Berhanu, K., Poulton, C. (2014). The Political Economy of Agricultural Extension Policy in Ethiopia: Economic Growth and Political Control. Dev. Polic. Rev., 32(2), 197–213.
Birch, I. (2018). Agricultural productivity in Kenya: barriers and opportunities. K4D Helpdesk Report. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies.
Bitzer, V., Wennink, B., Piters, B.S. (2016). The Governance of Agricultural Extension Systems. KIT Working Papers 2016-01.
Chapota, R. (2020). Can extension and advisory services play a role in transforming smallholder farmers into business entities in Sub Saharan Africa? FARA Res. Report, 5(26).
Chimoita, E. (2014). Review of Agricultural Extension In terventions in Unlocking Agriculture Potential through Medium Sized Farms, Kenya. Technical Report to Equity Group Foundation, Agriculture Pillar. https:// pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7798/ef40de2bcca5f02e5c 91fa357ee2008be079.pdf
Davis, K., Franzel, S. (2018). Extension and Advisory Servic es in 10 Developing Countries: A Cross-Sectional Analy sis. USAID, Feed the Future DLEC Project, September 2018.
Davis, K.E., Terblanche, S.E. (2016). Challenges Facing the Agricultural Extension Landscape in South Africa, Quo Vadis? South Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 44(2), 231–247.
DLEC (2019). Strengthening Private Sector Extension and Advisory Services Portfolio Review. Developing Local Extension Capacity Project. Feed The Future. USAID Washington DC.
DLEC/GFRAS (2017). Nigeria: In-depth Assessment of Extension and Advisory Services. Developing Local Exten sion Capacity (DLEC) Project. USAID. Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services. March 2017.
Fa, A. (2018). Appraisal of innovations in agricultural exten sion and advisory services in Cameroon. J. Adv. Plant Sci., 1(2), 1–9.
FAO (1998). Improving Agricultural Extension: A reference Manual, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Gwary, M.M., Asindaya, Z., Abba, M.A. (2016). Public-pri vate partnership as panacea for effective extension service delivery: Review of experience and potential in Nigeria. Net J. Agric. Sci., 4(3), 50–55.
Heemskerk, W., Nederlof, S., Wennink, B. (2008). Outsourc ing agricultural advisory services: enhancing rural inno vation in sub-Saharan Africa. Bulletin No. 380. Develop ment Policy & Practice.
Ijatuyi, J.E., Mokone, B. (2018). A Narrative Review of the Assessment of Extension and Advisory Services on an Ag ricultural Development Project in North-West Province, South Africa. J. Int. Agric. Ext. Edu., 25(2), 87–99.
Jayne, T.S., Chamberlin, J., Traub, L., Sitko, N., Muyanga, M., Yeboah, F.K., Anseeuw, W., Chapoto, A., Wineman, A., Nkonde, C., Kachule, R. (2016). Africa’s changing farm size distribution patterns: the rise of medium-scale farms. Agric. Econ., 47, 197–214.
Kathoya, G., van der Lee, J. (2016). Status Report KMDP Training and Extension approaches. Integrate and con nect: Recommendations for KMDP’s approach and role in knowledge exchange and skills development in the Ken yan dairy industry. SNV.
Kidane, T.T., Worth, S.H. (2017). Different Agricultural Ex tension Systems Implemented in Africa: A Review. J. Hu man Ecol., 55(3), 183–195.
Kilelu, C.W., van der Lee, J., Opola, F. (2018). Enhancing knowledge and skills for the agri-food sector: The emerg ing market-led extension and advisory services in Kenya. 3R Kenya Project Issue Brief 002. Wageningen University and Research.
Ladele A.A. (2011). Approaches to Private Agricultural Ex tension Service Delivery in Africa: Lessons from Current Development Initiatives in Nigeria. International Confer ence Proceedings. Innovations in Extension and Advisory Services. Nov. 15-18. Nairobi, Kenya
Liebenberg, F. (2015). Agricultural Advisory Services in South Africa. Discussion Paper. Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development, University of Pretoria. South Africa.
Loki, O., Mudhara, M., Pakela-Jezire, Y., Mkhabela, T.S. (2019). Factors Influencing Land Reform Beneficiaries Willingness to Pay for Extension Services in Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. South Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 47(4), 29–45.
Lyne, M.C., Nomonde, J., Ortmann, G.F. (2018) A quantita tive assessment of an outsourced agricultural extension service in the Umzimkhulu District of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. J. Agric. Edu. Ext., 24(1), 51–64.
Machila, M., Lyne, M., Nuthall, P. (2015). Assessment of an outsourced agricultural extension service in the Mu tasa district of Zimbabwe. J. Agric. Ext. Rural Dev., 7(5), 142–149.
MALF-RoK (2017). Guidelines and Standards for Agricul tural Extension and Advisory Services. Ministry of Ag riculture, Livestock and Fisheries. Republic of Kenya. September 2017.
Mangheni, M.N. (2016). Transitioning from Public to Private Sector Agricultural Extension: Drivers, Challenges and Implications for Policy and Research. Knowledge for De velopment, Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA).
Mapiye, O., Makombe, G., Molotsi, A., Dzama, K., Mapiye, C. (2021). Towards a Revolutionized Agricultural Exten sion System for the Sustainability of Smallholder Live stock Production in Developing Countries: The Poten tial Role of ICTs. Sustainability, 13, 5868. https://doi. org/10.3390/su13115868
Masangano, C., Mthinda, C. (2012). Pluralistic Extension System in Malawi. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01171. April 2012. International Food Policy Research Institute.
Mgalama, P.V. (2014). The role of agricultural extension services in socio-economic development of East Africa: A critical review. Africanus, 44(1), 53–64.
Msuya, C.P., Annor-Frempong, F.K., Magheni, M.N., Agun ga, R., Igodan, C.O., Ladele, A.A., Huhela, K., Tselaesele, N.M., Msatilomo, H., Chowa, C., Zwane, E., Miiro, R., Bukeyn, C., Kima, L.A., Meliko, M., Ndiaye, A. (2017). The Role of Agricultural Extension in Africa’s Develop ment: The Importance of Extension Workers and The Need for Change. Int. J. Agric. Ext., 5(1), 59–70.
Mubangizi, N., Mangheni, M.N., Garforth, C.J. (2014). In formation sources and constraints under national agricul tural advisory services programme, of service providers in Uganda. Uganda J. Agric. Sci., 9(1), 257–264.
Nambiro, E., Chianu, J., Muraje, A. (2010). The Association of Agricultural Information Services and Technical Ef ficiency among Maize Producers in Kakamega, Western Kenya. Conference Paper, Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa (AEASA) Confer ence. September 19-23, 2010. Cape Town, South Africa.
Ngugi, J., Muigai, S., Muhoro, F. (2014). Transforming Ag riculture through Contracted Extension Service Delivery Systems: The Case of Kenya’s Agricultural Productiv ity and Agribusiness Project. Afr. Crop Sci. J., 22(4), 905–915.
Nkonya, E. (2009). Current Extension Models: What Works and What Does Not Work. Presentation at the “SLM and agricultural practices in Africa: Bridging the gap between research and farmers”. April 16 –17, 2009, University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
Norton, G.W., Alwang, J. (2020). Changes in Agricultural Extension and Implications for Farmer Adoption of New Practices. Appl. Econ. Persp. Pol., 42(1), 8–20.
Ogbonna, O.I., Onwubuya, E.A., Akinnagbe, O.M., Iwuchuk wu, J.C. (2016). Evaluating effectiveness and constraints of private sector agricultural extension services of the Green River Project in Imo and Rivers States, Nigeria. Afr. Eval. J., 4(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/aej.v4i1.118
Ragasa, C., Ulimwengu, J., Randriamamonjy, J., Badibanga, T. (2016). Factors affecting Performance of Agricultural Extension: Evidence from Democratic Republic of Con go. J. Agric. Edu. Exten., 22(2), 113–143.
Raidimi, E.N., Kabiti, H.M. (2017). Agricultural Extension, Research and Development for Increased Food Security: The Need for Public-Private Sector Partnerships in South Africa. S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 45(1), 49–63.
Rwamigisa, P.B., Birner, R., Mangheni, M.N., Semana, A. (2018). How to promote institutional reforms in the ag ricultural sector: A case study of Uganda’s National Ag ricultural Advisory Services (NAADS). Dev. Polic. Rev., 36(5), 607–627.
Saliu, J.O., Obinne, P.C., Audu, S.I. (2009). Trends in Agricul tural Extension Services in Africa: Options for New Ap proaches. J. Agric. Ext. Rural Dev., 1(3), 71–76.
Sanga, C., Kalungwizi, V.J., Msuya, C.P. (2014). Building an Extension Service System supported by ICTs in Tanzania: Progress Made, Challenges Remain. Int. J. Edu. Dev. Us ing Inf. Comm. Technol., 9(1), 80–99.
Springfield Centre (2014). The Operational Guide for the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, 2nd edition funded by SDC & DFID.
Swanson, B., Rajalahti, R. (2010). Strengthening agricultural extension and advisory systems: Procedures for assessing, transforming, and evaluating extension systems. Agriculture and Rural Development Discussion Paper 44. ARD, Washington, DC, USA: World Bank.
Sylla, A.Y., Al-Hassan, R.M., Egyir, I.S., Anim-Soumah, H. (2019). Perceptions about quality of public and private ag ricultural extension in Africa: Evidence from farmers in Burkina Faso. Cogent Food Agric., 5(1), 1685861.
Synder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research method ology: An overview and guidelines. J. Bus. Res., 104(1), 333–339.
Taye, H. (2013). Evaluating the impact of agricultural exten sion programmes in sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and prospects. Afr. Eval. J., 1(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/aej.v1i1.19
Touzard, J.M., Temple, L., Faure, G., Triomphe, B. (2014). Systèmes d’innovation et communautés de connaissances dans le secteur agricole et agroalimentaire. Innovations, 43, 13–38.
UNESCAP (2016). Increasing Productivity for Reviving Eco nomic Growth and Supporting Sustainable Development. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific.
USAID (2017). Guinea: Desk Study of Extension and Ad visory Services. Developing Local Extension Capacity (DLEC) Project. Feed the Future, October 2017.
Veldhuizen, L.R., van Rappoldt, A., Bitzer, V., Mur, R. (2018). Understanding agribusiness-based advisory services: Findings of a learning trajectory. KIT Royal Tropical In stitute, Amsterdam.
Wanyama, R., Mathenge, M.W., Mbaka, Z.S. (2016). Agricul tural information sources and their effect on farm produc tivity in Kenya. Tegemeo Institute of Agricultural Policy and Development, Working Paper Series No. 62/2016.
Wellard, K., Rafanomezana, J., Nyirenda, M., Okotel, M., Subbey, V. (2013). A Review of Community Extension Approaches to Innovation for Improved Livelihoods in Ghana, Uganda and Malawi. J. Agric. Edu. Ext., 19(1), 21–35.
Zwane, E.M. (2016). Perceptions of extension advisors on pri vatisation and outsourcing as an option for development paradigm in Limpopo province and the lessons for future. South Africa. S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 44(2), 71–83
Nwafor, C., Ogundeji, A., & Nwafor, I. (2021). REVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN COUNTRIES. PROGRESS WITH PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT. Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development, 61(3), 271–282. https://doi.org/10.17306/J.JARD.2021.01413
Christopher Ugochukwu Nwafor
manchrizzo@hotmail.com
Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-0650
Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-0650
Abiodun A Ogundeji
Ifeoma Chinyelu Nwafor
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