Impact of agricultural credit access on agricultural productivity among maize and rice smallholder farmers in Rwanda
Abstract
This paper assesses the impact of access to agricultural credit on the agricultural productivity of 422 smallholder farmers that cultivate maize or rice in the Western and Eastern province of Rwanda. Stratified, simple random and convenience sampling techniques were used to sample districts, sectors, cells and households. Data were collected using structured interviews and analyzed using propensity score matching techniques. Results indicated that productivity was higher by 44% among the farmers who accessed credit implying that they harvested on average an extra 440 kilograms of maize or rice. According to a crop-specific analysis, agricultural credit access had a more significant impact on maize productivity, with a difference in proportion of 68% (p = 0.000) but had no impact on rice productivity (p = 0.149). The study concludes that agricultural credit was important for Rwanda’s agricultural productivity. Thus policy measures should aim at improving smallholder farmers’ access to agricultural credit and promoting the use of modern agricultural inputs, particularly among rice farmers in Rwanda.
Keywords
rice; maize; smallholder farmers; agricultural productivity; credit access; Rwanda
References
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Emerg. Market. Fin. Trade, 1–17. DOI: 10.1080/1540496X.2019.1602038
Akram, W., Hussain, Z., Ahmad, N., Hussain, I. (2013). Does agriculture credit affect production efficiency? Frontier production function approach. Pakis. Econ. Soc. Rev., 51(2), 179–190.
Akudugu, M. (2016). Agricultural productivity, credit and farm size nexus in Africa: A case study of Ghana. Agric. Fin. Rev., 76(2), 288–308. https://doi.org/10.1108/AFR-12-2015-0058
Ali, D.A., Deininger, K., Duponchel, M. (2014). Credit constraints and agricultural productivity: Evidence from rural Rwanda. J. Dev. Stud., 50(5), 649–665.
Andae, G. (2020). Maize production shortfall sets the stage for imports. Retrieved 28th April 2020 from: https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Food-agency-asks-State-toimport-2m-bags-of-maize/2560-5486688-op7fsl/index.html
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Becerril, J., Abdulai, A. (2010). The impact of improved maize varieties on poverty in Mexico: A propensity scorematching approach. World Dev., 38(7), 1024–1035.
Bhatia, S.S. (1967). A New Approach to Measure Agricultural Efficiency in Uttar Pradesh. Economics Geography, 43, 224–260.
Bidzakin, J.K., Simon, C., Fialor, D., Awunyo, V., Iddrisu, Y. (2019). Impact of contract farming on rice farm performance: Endogenous switching regression. Cogent Econ. Fin., 7(1), 1618229. DOI: 10.1080/23322039.2019.1618229
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Chandio, A.A., Yuansheng, J., Wei, F., Rehman, A., Liu, D. (2017). Farmers’ access to credit: Does collateral matter or cash flow matter? Evidence from Sindh, Pakistan, Cogent Econ. Fin. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2017.1369383
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DeVries, J. (2017). Doubling productivity and incomes of smallholder farmers in Africa. Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa. Retrieved from: https://agra.org/news/doubling-productivity-and-incomes-of-smallholder-farmers-in-africa/
Duy, V.Q. (2015). Access to credit and rice production efficiency of rural households in the Mekong Delta. Sociol. Anthrop., 3(9), 425–433.
FAO (2017). The future of food and agriculture – Trends and challenges. Rome: FAO. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6583e.pdf
FAO (2018). Credit to agriculture. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/investment/credit/en/
FAO (2018). Rice market monitor (t. XXI). Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/3/I9243EN/i9243en.pdf
FAO (2019). Food outlook - biannual report on global food markets – November 2019. Rome: FAO.
Friedlander, D., Robins, P.K. (1995). Evaluating program evaluations: Evidence on commonly used non-experimental methods. Am. Econ. Rev., 85(4), 923–937.
Gahigi, M.K. (2019). Despite high rice production, imports needed. Rwanda Today. https://rwandatoday.africa/business/Despite-high-rice-production-imports-needed-/4383192-4386654-q8ey3c/index.html
Gonzalez, L., Moser Barbosa, R. (2015). Green microfinance in Southern Brazil: The case of the cresol system. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0034-7612134039
GoR (Government of Rwanda). (2013). National rice development strategy (2011–2018). Retrieved from: https://riceforafrica.net/images/stories/PDF/rwanda_revised_aug2013.pdf
Krejcie, R.V., Morgan, D.W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educ. Psychol. Meas., 30, 607–610.
Lawal, A.I., Olayanju, A.T., Ayeni, J., Olaniru, O.S. (2019). Impact of bank credit on agricultural productivity: Empirical evidence from Nigeria (1981–2015). Int. J. Civil Eng. Technol., 10(2), 113–123.
Lowder, S.K., Skoet, J., Raney, T. (2016). The number, size, and distribution of farms, smallholder farms, and family farms worldwide. World Dev., 87, 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.041
Mamudu, A.A. (2016). Agricultural productivity, credit and farm size nexus in Africa: a case study of Ghana. Agric. Credit Rev., 76(2), 288–308.
Mendola, M. (2007). Agricultural technology adoption and poverty reduction: A propensity-score matching analysis for rural Bangladesh. Food Pol., 32(3), 372–393. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2006.07.003
Mita, B., Sanzidur, R., Shunbo. Y. (2019). Growth in agricultural productivity and its components in Bangladeshi regions (1987–2009): An application of bootstrapped data envelopment analysis (DEA). Economies, 7(2), 37. doi: 10.3390/economies7020037
Mottaleb, K.A. (2018). Perception and adoption of a new agricultural technology: Evidence from a developing country. Techn. Society, 55, 126–135.
Mottaleb, K.A., Krupnik, T.J., Erenstein, O. (2016). Factors associated with small-scale agricultural machinery adoption in Bangladesh: Census findings. J. Rural Stud., 46, 155–168. Retrieved from: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.06.012
Mottaleb, K.A., Rahut, D.B., Akhter, A., Bruno, G., Erenstein, O. (2017). Enhancing smallholder access to agricultural machinery services: Lessons from Bangladesh. J. Dev. Stud., 53(9), 1502–1517. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2016.1257116
Musinguzi, I. (2017). The impact of access to agricultural services on maize productivity in Uganda. Doctoral Dissertation. Strathmore University.
Muvunyi, L. (2019). Maize shortage looms despite bumper harvest. Retrieved April 28th 2020 from: http://rwandatoday.africa/news/Maize-shortage-looms-despite-bumperharvest/4383214-5102248-r3d1cqz/index.html
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Ojo, T.O., Baiyegunhi, L.J.S., Salami, A.O. (2019). Impact of credit demand on the productivity of rice farmers in South West Nigeria. J. Econ. Behav. Stud. AMH Int., 11(1), 166–180.
Owusu S. (2017). Effect of access to credit on agricultural productivity: Evidence from cassava farmers in the Afigya-Kwabre District of Ghana. Int. J. Innov. Res. Soc. Sci. Strat. Manag. Techn., 4(2).
Rizwan, M.Q., Ping, S., Iram, A., Nazir, Q., Wang. (2019). Why and for what? An evidence of agriculture credit demand among rice farmers in Pakistan. ADBI Working Paper 995. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute. Retrieved from: https://www.adb.org/publications/why-whatevidence-agriculture-credit-demand-rice-farmers-pakistan
Rosenbaum, P.R., Rubin, D.B. (1983). The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika, 70(1), 41–55. Retrieved https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biomet/70.1.41
Sihlobo, W. (2019). Africa: After floods, Zimbabwe and Mozambique face huge maize shortfalls. Retrieved 23rd Oct 2019 from: https://allafrica.com/stories/201906200176.html
Sossou, C.H., Noma, F., Yabi, J.A. (2014). Rural credit and farms efficiency: Modelling farmers credit allocation decisions, evidences from Benin. Econ. Res. Int., 309352; http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/309352.
Teka, A.M., Lee, S.K. (2019). The impact of agricultural package programs on farm productivity in Tigray-Ethiopia: Panel data estimation. Cogent Econ. Fin., 7, 1631987. Retrieved from: https://www.cogentoa.com/article/10.1080/23322039.2019.1631987
Temitope, O., Baiyegunhi, L., Salami, O. (2019). Impact of credit demand on the productivity of rice farmers in South West Nigeria. J. Econ. Beh. Stud., 11(10), 166–180; 10.22610/jebs.v11i1(J).2757
USAID (2018). Agriculture and food security. Rwanda. Retrieved from 9 September, 2020. https://www.usaid.gov/rwanda/agriculture-and-food-security
USAID (2019). Agriculture and food security. Retrieved April 28th 2020 from: https://www.usaid.gov/east-africa-regional/agriculture-and-food-security
Wiggins, E. (2006). Bank credit accessibility and sectoral output performance in a deregulated financial market economy: Empirical evidence from Nigeria. J. Fin. Bank Manag., 1(2), 36–59.
World Bank (2019). Agriculture finance & agriculture insurance. Retrieved April 28th 2020 from: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/financialsector/brief/agriculture-finance
World Economic Forum (2016). Five ways to reduce poverty among smallholder farmers. Retrieved April 27th 2020 from: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/03/5-waysto-reduce-poverty-among-smallholder-farmers/
Yamauchi, F. (2016). Rising real wages, mechanization and growing advantage of large farms: Evidence from Indonesia. Food Policy, Elsevier, 58(C), 62–69.
Ye, H., Lin, S. (2009). Does inflation targeting make a difference in developing countries? J. Dev. Econ., 89(1), 118–123.
Yousaf, M., Li, J., Lu, J. (2017). Effects of fertilization on crop production and nutrient-supplying capacity under rice-oilseed rape rotation system. Sci. Rep., 7, 1270; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-01412-0
Zakaria, M., Jun, W., Khan, M.F. (2019). Impact of financial development on agricultural productivity in South Asia. Agric. Econ. Czech, 65, 232–239.
Zenawi, G., Mizan, A. (2019). Effect of nitrogen fertilization on the growth and seed yield of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). Int. J. Agron., 5027254; https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5027254
Access to Finance Rwanda (2017). Annual report summary. Kigali, Rwanda.
Access to Finance Rwanda (2019). National financial inclusion strategy for Rwanda 2019–2024. Kigali, Rwanda.
AGRA (2017). Doubling productivity and incomes of smallholder farmers in Africa. Retrieved April 26th 2020 from:
https://agra.org/doubling-productivity-and-incomes-ofsmallholder-farmers-in-africa/
Akoété, E.A., Ablamba, A J. (2019). Agricultural credit and its impact on the productivity of certain cereals in Togo.
Emerg. Market. Fin. Trade, 1–17. DOI: 10.1080/1540496X.2019.1602038
Akram, W., Hussain, Z., Ahmad, N., Hussain, I. (2013). Does agriculture credit affect production efficiency? Frontier production function approach. Pakis. Econ. Soc. Rev., 51(2), 179–190.
Akudugu, M. (2016). Agricultural productivity, credit and farm size nexus in Africa: A case study of Ghana. Agric. Fin. Rev., 76(2), 288–308. https://doi.org/10.1108/AFR-12-2015-0058
Ali, D.A., Deininger, K., Duponchel, M. (2014). Credit constraints and agricultural productivity: Evidence from rural Rwanda. J. Dev. Stud., 50(5), 649–665.
Andae, G. (2020). Maize production shortfall sets the stage for imports. Retrieved 28th April 2020 from: https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Food-agency-asks-State-toimport-2m-bags-of-maize/2560-5486688-op7fsl/index.html
Awotide, B.A., Abdoulaye, T., Alene, A., Manyong, V.M. (2015). Impact of Access to Credit on Agricultural Productivity: Evidence from Smallholder Cassava Farmers in Nigeria. A Contributed paper Prepared for Oral Presentation at the International Conference of Agricultural Economists (ICAE) Milan, Italy, August 9–14.
Baffoe, G., Matsuda, H., Masafunii, N., Akiyama, T. (2015). The dynamics of rural credit and its impact on agricultural productivity: an empirical study in Rural Ghana. OIDA Int. J. Sust. Dev., 7(5), 19–34.
Baker, J.L. (2000). Evaluating the impact of development projects on poverty: A handbook for practitioners. Washington DC: World Bank Publications. The World Bank, number 13949.
Beaman, L., Karlan, D., Thuysbaert, B. (2014). Saving for a (not so) rainy day: A randomized evaluation of savings groups in Mali. NBER Working Paper Series 20600; www.nber.org/papers/w20600
Becerril, J., Abdulai, A. (2010). The impact of improved maize varieties on poverty in Mexico: A propensity scorematching approach. World Dev., 38(7), 1024–1035.
Bhatia, S.S. (1967). A New Approach to Measure Agricultural Efficiency in Uttar Pradesh. Economics Geography, 43, 224–260.
Bidzakin, J.K., Simon, C., Fialor, D., Awunyo, V., Iddrisu, Y. (2019). Impact of contract farming on rice farm performance: Endogenous switching regression. Cogent Econ. Fin., 7(1), 1618229. DOI: 10.1080/23322039.2019.1618229
Caliendo, M., Kopeinig, S. (2008). Some practical guidance for the implementation of propensity score matching. IZA Discussion Paper No. 1588. The Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) in Bonn.
Chandio, A.A., Yuansheng, J., Koondher, M.A. (2015). Raising maize productivity through agricultural credit A: Case Study of Commercial Banks in Pakistan. Eur. J. Bus. Manag., 7(32), 159–165.
Chandio, A.A., Yuansheng, J., Wei, F., Rehman, A., Liu, D. (2017). Farmers’ access to credit: Does collateral matter or cash flow matter? Evidence from Sindh, Pakistan, Cogent Econ. Fin. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2017.1369383
Devotha, G., Nyambo, E.T., Luhanga, Z.Q.Y. (2019). A review of characterization approaches for smallholder farmers: Towards predictive farm typologies. Sci. World J., 6121467; https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6121467.
DeVries, J. (2017). Doubling productivity and incomes of smallholder farmers in Africa. Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa. Retrieved from: https://agra.org/news/doubling-productivity-and-incomes-of-smallholder-farmers-in-africa/
Duy, V.Q. (2015). Access to credit and rice production efficiency of rural households in the Mekong Delta. Sociol. Anthrop., 3(9), 425–433.
FAO (2017). The future of food and agriculture – Trends and challenges. Rome: FAO. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6583e.pdf
FAO (2018). Credit to agriculture. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/investment/credit/en/
FAO (2018). Rice market monitor (t. XXI). Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/3/I9243EN/i9243en.pdf
FAO (2019). Food outlook - biannual report on global food markets – November 2019. Rome: FAO.
Friedlander, D., Robins, P.K. (1995). Evaluating program evaluations: Evidence on commonly used non-experimental methods. Am. Econ. Rev., 85(4), 923–937.
Gahigi, M.K. (2019). Despite high rice production, imports needed. Rwanda Today. https://rwandatoday.africa/business/Despite-high-rice-production-imports-needed-/4383192-4386654-q8ey3c/index.html
Gonzalez, L., Moser Barbosa, R. (2015). Green microfinance in Southern Brazil: The case of the cresol system. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0034-7612134039
GoR (Government of Rwanda). (2013). National rice development strategy (2011–2018). Retrieved from: https://riceforafrica.net/images/stories/PDF/rwanda_revised_aug2013.pdf
Krejcie, R.V., Morgan, D.W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educ. Psychol. Meas., 30, 607–610.
Lawal, A.I., Olayanju, A.T., Ayeni, J., Olaniru, O.S. (2019). Impact of bank credit on agricultural productivity: Empirical evidence from Nigeria (1981–2015). Int. J. Civil Eng. Technol., 10(2), 113–123.
Lowder, S.K., Skoet, J., Raney, T. (2016). The number, size, and distribution of farms, smallholder farms, and family farms worldwide. World Dev., 87, 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.041
Mamudu, A.A. (2016). Agricultural productivity, credit and farm size nexus in Africa: a case study of Ghana. Agric. Credit Rev., 76(2), 288–308.
Mendola, M. (2007). Agricultural technology adoption and poverty reduction: A propensity-score matching analysis for rural Bangladesh. Food Pol., 32(3), 372–393. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2006.07.003
Mita, B., Sanzidur, R., Shunbo. Y. (2019). Growth in agricultural productivity and its components in Bangladeshi regions (1987–2009): An application of bootstrapped data envelopment analysis (DEA). Economies, 7(2), 37. doi: 10.3390/economies7020037
Mottaleb, K.A. (2018). Perception and adoption of a new agricultural technology: Evidence from a developing country. Techn. Society, 55, 126–135.
Mottaleb, K.A., Krupnik, T.J., Erenstein, O. (2016). Factors associated with small-scale agricultural machinery adoption in Bangladesh: Census findings. J. Rural Stud., 46, 155–168. Retrieved from: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.06.012
Mottaleb, K.A., Rahut, D.B., Akhter, A., Bruno, G., Erenstein, O. (2017). Enhancing smallholder access to agricultural machinery services: Lessons from Bangladesh. J. Dev. Stud., 53(9), 1502–1517. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2016.1257116
Musinguzi, I. (2017). The impact of access to agricultural services on maize productivity in Uganda. Doctoral Dissertation. Strathmore University.
Muvunyi, L. (2019). Maize shortage looms despite bumper harvest. Retrieved April 28th 2020 from: http://rwandatoday.africa/news/Maize-shortage-looms-despite-bumperharvest/4383214-5102248-r3d1cqz/index.html
NISR (National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda). (2019). Seasonal agricultural survey 2019. Annual report. Retrieved from http://www.statistics.gov.rw/publication/seasonal-agricultural-survey-2019-annual-report
Nuhu, E., Inusah, A.H., Ama, G.R., Sano, Z.M. (2014). Impact analysis of microfinance on crop production in Ghana. Int. J. Acad. Res. Account. Fin. Manag. Sci., 4(3), 97–108. doi: 10.6007/IJARAFMS/v4-i3/1025
Ojo, T.O., Baiyegunhi, L.J.S., Salami, A.O. (2019). Impact of credit demand on the productivity of rice farmers in South West Nigeria. J. Econ. Behav. Stud. AMH Int., 11(1), 166–180.
Owusu S. (2017). Effect of access to credit on agricultural productivity: Evidence from cassava farmers in the Afigya-Kwabre District of Ghana. Int. J. Innov. Res. Soc. Sci. Strat. Manag. Techn., 4(2).
Rizwan, M.Q., Ping, S., Iram, A., Nazir, Q., Wang. (2019). Why and for what? An evidence of agriculture credit demand among rice farmers in Pakistan. ADBI Working Paper 995. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute. Retrieved from: https://www.adb.org/publications/why-whatevidence-agriculture-credit-demand-rice-farmers-pakistan
Rosenbaum, P.R., Rubin, D.B. (1983). The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika, 70(1), 41–55. Retrieved https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biomet/70.1.41
Sihlobo, W. (2019). Africa: After floods, Zimbabwe and Mozambique face huge maize shortfalls. Retrieved 23rd Oct 2019 from: https://allafrica.com/stories/201906200176.html
Sossou, C.H., Noma, F., Yabi, J.A. (2014). Rural credit and farms efficiency: Modelling farmers credit allocation decisions, evidences from Benin. Econ. Res. Int., 309352; http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/309352.
Teka, A.M., Lee, S.K. (2019). The impact of agricultural package programs on farm productivity in Tigray-Ethiopia: Panel data estimation. Cogent Econ. Fin., 7, 1631987. Retrieved from: https://www.cogentoa.com/article/10.1080/23322039.2019.1631987
Temitope, O., Baiyegunhi, L., Salami, O. (2019). Impact of credit demand on the productivity of rice farmers in South West Nigeria. J. Econ. Beh. Stud., 11(10), 166–180; 10.22610/jebs.v11i1(J).2757
USAID (2018). Agriculture and food security. Rwanda. Retrieved from 9 September, 2020. https://www.usaid.gov/rwanda/agriculture-and-food-security
USAID (2019). Agriculture and food security. Retrieved April 28th 2020 from: https://www.usaid.gov/east-africa-regional/agriculture-and-food-security
Wiggins, E. (2006). Bank credit accessibility and sectoral output performance in a deregulated financial market economy: Empirical evidence from Nigeria. J. Fin. Bank Manag., 1(2), 36–59.
World Bank (2019). Agriculture finance & agriculture insurance. Retrieved April 28th 2020 from: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/financialsector/brief/agriculture-finance
World Economic Forum (2016). Five ways to reduce poverty among smallholder farmers. Retrieved April 27th 2020 from: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/03/5-waysto-reduce-poverty-among-smallholder-farmers/
Yamauchi, F. (2016). Rising real wages, mechanization and growing advantage of large farms: Evidence from Indonesia. Food Policy, Elsevier, 58(C), 62–69.
Ye, H., Lin, S. (2009). Does inflation targeting make a difference in developing countries? J. Dev. Econ., 89(1), 118–123.
Yousaf, M., Li, J., Lu, J. (2017). Effects of fertilization on crop production and nutrient-supplying capacity under rice-oilseed rape rotation system. Sci. Rep., 7, 1270; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-01412-0
Zakaria, M., Jun, W., Khan, M.F. (2019). Impact of financial development on agricultural productivity in South Asia. Agric. Econ. Czech, 65, 232–239.
Zenawi, G., Mizan, A. (2019). Effect of nitrogen fertilization on the growth and seed yield of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). Int. J. Agron., 5027254; https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5027254
Taremwa, N., Macharia, I., Bett, E., & Majiwa, E. (2021). Impact of agricultural credit access on agricultural productivity among maize and rice smallholder farmers in Rwanda. Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development, 59(1), 39-58. https://doi.org/10.17306/J.JARD.2021.01341
Nathan Kanuma Taremwa
nathantaremwa@students.ku.ac.ke
University of Rwanda (UR) Rwanda
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7919-9291
University of Rwanda (UR) Rwanda
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7919-9291
Mr., Lecturer, Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Economics, University of Rwanda, P.O. Box 4285, Kigali, Rwanda
Ibrahim Macharia
Kenyatta University (KU) Nairobi, Kenya Kenya
Kenyatta University (KU) Nairobi, Kenya Kenya
dr, Senior Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Economics, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
Email: macharia.ibrahim@ku.ac.ke
Eric Bett
Kenyatta University (KU) Nairobi, Kenya Kenya
Kenyatta University (KU) Nairobi, Kenya Kenya
dr, Senior Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Economics, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 43844-00100. Nairobi, Kenya
Eucabeth Majiwa
Jomo Kenyatta University (JKUAT) Kenya
Jomo Kenyatta University (JKUAT) Kenya
Senior Lecturer, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200 Nairobi, Kenya
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