The impact of credit access and cooperative membership on food security of rural house-holds in south-western Nigeria
Abstract
This study investigated the impact of credit access and cooperative membership on food security of rural households in Southwestern Nigeria. A multi stage sampling procedure was employed to select 300 rural households for the study. Data were analyzed using food security index, binary logit model, propensity score matching (PSM) and Augmented inverse probability weighting model (AIPW). Binary logit estimate reveals that age, household size, years of education, farm size, farm income and non-farm income significantly influenced the likelihood of rural households being members of cooperatives while household size, years of education, farm size, gender, asset and farm income significantly influenced the likelihood of rural households’ access to credit. Food security index revealed that about 66 percent of the households are food insecure. PSM revealed that cooperative membership and credit access is expected to increase the food security of rural households by approximately 1446 and 1496 kilocalories per person per day, respectively. AIPW revealed that cooperative membership and credit access is expected to increase the food security of rural households by approximately 1888 and 1899 kilocalories per person per day, respectively. The study concluded that credit access and cooperative membership has a positive and significant impact on food security of rural households. Thus, any programmes targeted at ensuring rural households’ food security, particularly southwest should take into cognizance their credit access and cooperative membership.
Keywords
credit access; cooperative membership; food security; rural households; south-western Nigeria
References
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Adeniyi, O.R., Ojo, O.A., (2013). Food Security Status of Rural Farming Households in Iwo, Ayedire and Ayedaade Local Government Areas of Osun State, South-western Nigeria. Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev., 13(5), 8209–8223.
Ahmed, M.H., Mesfin, H.M. (2017). The impact of agricultural cooperatives membership on the wellbeing of smallholder farmers: empirical evidence from eastern Ethiopia. Agric. Food Econ. 5(6), 1–20.
Aidoo, R., Mensah, J., Tuffor, T. (2013). Determinants of household food security in the Sekyere-afram plains district of Ghana. 1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference AIIC Azores, Portugal.
Akerele, D., Momoh, S., Aromolara, A.B., Oguntona, C.R.B., Shittu, A.M. (2013). Food Insecurity and Coping Strategies in South-West Nigeria. Food Sec., 5, 407–414.
Akpan, S. (2013). Determinants of credit access and demand among poultry farmers in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Am. J. Experi. Agri., 3, 293–307.
Akudugu, M.A. (2012). Estimation of the determinants of credit demand by farmers and supply by rural banks in Ghana’s upper east region. Asian J. Agric. Rural Dev., 2, 189–200.
Alao, T.B., Bamire, A.S., Kehinde, A.D. (2020). Gender analysis of agricultural financing in cocoa-based farming system in Oyo and Osun States of South Western Nigeria. Ghana J. Agric. Sci. 55(1), 34–42.
Babatunde, R.O., Omotesho, O.A., Olorunsanya, E.O., Owotoki, G.M. (2008). Determinants of vulnerability to food insecurity: A gender-based analysis of farming households in Nigeria. Indian J. Agric. Econ., 63(1), 1–10.
Babatunde, R.O., Omotosho, O.A., Sholotan, O.S. (2007). Factors influencing food security status of rural farming households in North Central Nigeria. Agric. J., 2(3), 351–357.
Bellemare, M.F., Novak, L. (2017). Contract farming and food security. Am. J. Agric. Econ., 99, 357–378.
Bogale, A., Shimelis, A. (2009). Household level determinants of food security in rural areas of Dire Dawa, Eastern Ethiopia. Afri. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev., 9(9), 1914–1926.
Brannen, C., (2010). An impact study of the Village Savings and Loan Association (VSLA) Program in Zanzibar, Tanzania (Unpublished master’s thesis). Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, U.S.A.
Caliendo, M., Kopeinig, S. (2008). Some practical guidance for the implementation of propensity score matching. J. Econ. Surv., 22(1), 31–72.
Chagwiza, C., Muradian, R., Ruben, R. (2016). Cooperative membership and dairy performance among smallholders in Ethiopia. Food Polic., 59, 165–173.
Cheng, E. (2006). The Demand for Micro-Credit as a Determinant for Microfinance Outreach – Evidence from China. Paper presented at ACESA 2006 Emerging China: Internal Challenges and Global Implications, Victoria University, Melbourne, July, 13–14.
Chikaire, J.U., Ani, A.O., Atoma, C.N., Tijjani, A.R. (2015). Extension services for effective agricultural risk management in Orlu agricultural zone of Imo State, Nigeria. Schol. J. Agric. Vet. Sci., 2(1A), 1–8.
Crepon, B., Duflo, E., Periente, W. (2014). Estimating the impact of Microcredit on those who take it up: Evidence from a randomized experience in Morocco. National Bureau of Economic Research, U.S.A.
Diagne, A., Zeller, M. (2001). Access to Credit and Its Impact in Malawi. Research Report No. 116. Washington D.C., USA: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
Duffour, K. (2011). Budget statement and economic policy of the government of Ghana. P.49. Ghana.
Duniya, K.P., Adinah, I.I. (2015). Probit analysis of cotton farmers’ accessibility to credit in northern Guinea savannah of Nigeria. Asian J. Agric. Ext., Econ. Soc., 4, 296–301.
Essien, U.A., Arene, C.J., Nweze, N.J. (2013). An investigation into credit receipt and enterprise performance among agro small scale agro based enterprises in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria? Int. J. Agric. Manag. Dev., 3(4), 245–258.
Estruk, O., Oren, M. (2014). Impact of household socio-economic factors on food security: Case of Adana, Turkey. Pakistan J. Nutr., 13(1), 1–6.
FAO (2005). FAO Warns World Cannot Afford Hunger. Retrieved from: www.fao.org./fao newsroom.
FAO (2008). The state of food and agriculture in Asia and the Pacific Asia and the Pacific Food Situation Update. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United State.
FAO (2010). The state of food insecurity in the World. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO (2012). The state of food insecurity in the World. The 2012 edition. Retrieved from: www.fao.org/docrep/016/13027e00.htm
FAO (2013). The state of food insecurity in the World. The multiple dimensions of food security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Fakiyesi, O.M. (2001). Encouraging Growth to reduce Poverty in Nigeria. Nig. Econ. Fin. Rev., 39(2), 61–91.
Fawehinmi, O.A., Adeniyi, O.R. (2014). Gender dimensions of food security status of households in Oyo State, Nigeria. Glob. J. Hum. Sci., 14(1), 7–15.
Francesconi, G.N., Ruben, R. (2012). The hidden impact of cooperative membership on quality management: A case study from the dairy belt of Addis Ababa. J. Ent. Org. Div., 1(1), 85–103.
Gibremichael, B.A. (2014). The role of agricultural coops in promoting food security and rural women’s empowerment in Eastern Tigray Region, Ethiopia. J. Dev. Coun. Stud., 4(11), 96–109.
Hamad, R., Lia, C., Fernald, L. (2010). Microcredit participation and nutrition outcomes among women in Peru. World J. Agric. Sci., 9(8), 56–59.
Hazarika, G., Guha-Khasnobis, B. (2008). Household Access to Microcredit and Children’s Food Security in Rural Malawi: A Gender Perspective. Washington D.C.: IFPRI.
Ibok, O.W. (2012). Analysis of food security and productivity of urban food crop farmers in Cross River State. Unpublished master’s thesis. University of Calabar, Nigeria.
Ibrahim, S.S., Aliero, H.M. (2012). An analysis of farmers’ access to formal credit in the rural areas of Nigeria. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 7, 6249–6253.
Idrisa, Y.I., Gwary, M.M., Shehu, H. (2008). Analysis of food security status among farming households in Jere local government of Borno State, Nigeria. J. Tropic. Agric. Food, Env. Ext., 7(3), 199–205.
Ijaiya, G.T., Abdulraheem, A. (2000). Commercial banks credits to the agricultural sector and poverty reduction in Nigeria: A calibration analysis. Nig. J. Agribiz. Rural Dev., 1(1), 143–157.
Khan, R.E.A., Hussain, T. (2011). Demand for formal and informal credit in agriculture: a case study of cotton growers in Bahawalpur. Interdis. J. Cont. Res. Bus., 2(10), 1–7.
Lecoutere, E. (2017). The impact of agricultural co-operatives on women`s empowerment: Evidence from Uganda. J. Coop. Org. Manag., 5, 14–27.
Ma, W., Abdulai, A. (2016). Does cooperative membership improve household welfare? Evidence from apple farmers in China. Food Pol., 58, 94–102.
Ma, W., Abdulai, A., Goetz, R. (2018). Agricultural cooperatives and investment in organic soil amendments and chemical fertilizer in China. Am. J. Agric. Econ,. 100, 502–520.
Mohamen, I. (2003). Access to formal and quasi-formal credit by small holder farmers and artisanal fishermen. A case of Zanzibar. Research Report on poverty alleviation. No. 03.6.
Mojo, D., Fischer, C., Degefa, T. (2017). The determinants and economic impacts of membership in coffee farmer cooperatives: recent evidence from rural Ethiopia. J. Rural Stud., 50, 84–94.
Nuryartono, N. (2007). Credit rationing of farm households and agricultural production: empirical evidence in the rural areas of central Sulawesi, Indonesia. J. Manag. Agribus., 4, 15–21.
Nwaru, J.C., Essien, U.A., Onuoha, R.E. (2011). Determinants of informal credit demand and supply among food crop farmers in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. J. Rural Com. Dev., 6(1), 129–139.
Odemenem, I.U., Obinne, C.P.O. (2010). Assessing the factors influencing the utilization of improved cereal crop production technologies by small scale farmers in Nigeria. Ind. J. Sci. Tech., 3(1), 180–183.
Okurut, F.N. (2006). Access to credit by the poor in South Africa: Evidence from household survey data 1995 and 2000. Stellenbosch Economic Working Paper: 13/06.
Olawale, S. (2018). Nigeria poverty statistics and poverty rate in Nigeria. Retrieved Aug 2020 from: http://www.naija-quest.com/Nigeria poverty statistics/
Ololade, R.A., Olagunju, F.I. (2013). Determinants of access to credit among rural farmers in Oyo State, Nigeria. Global J. Sci. Frontier Res. Agric. Vet. Sci., 13(2), 16–22.
Oluyole, K.A., Taiwo, O. (2016). Socio-economic Variables and Food Security Status of Cocoa Farming Households in Ondo State, Nigeria. Asian J. Agric. Ext. Econ. Soc., 9(1), 1–7.
Orewa, S.I., Iyangbe, C.O. (2009). The food security profile among the rural and low-income urban dweller in Nigeria. Am-Eurasia. J. Sci. Res., 4(4), 302–307.
Oxfam Canada (2012). Behind the brands – Cocoa Case Studies. Retrieved from: https://42kgab3z3i7s3rm1xf48rq44-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/btb-oxfam-cocoa-case-studies.pdf
Oyedele, G.A., Akintola, J.O., Rahji, M.A.Y., Omonona, B.T. (2009). Credit constrained condition of farm households and profitability of agricultural production in Nigerian agriculture. Agric. J., 4, 192–201.
Robins, J., Sued, M., Lei-Gomez, Q., Rotnitzky, A. (2007). Comment: performance of double robust estimators when “inverse probability” weights are highly variable. Stat. Sci. 544e559.
Rosenbaum, P.R. (2002). Observational studies. New York: Springer
Rosenbaum, P.R., Rubin, D.B. (1983). The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika, 70, 41–55.
Sebopetji, T.O., Belete, A. (2009). An application of probit analysis to factors affecting small-scale farmers’ decision to take credit: a case study of the Greater Letaba Local Municipality in South Africa. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 4, 718–723.
Shiferaw, B., Kassie, M., Jaleta, M., Yirga, C., (2014). Adoption of improved wheat varieties and impacts on household food security in Ethiopia. Food Pol., 44, 272–284, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.09.012
Tasie, C.M., Wonodi, J.O., Wariboko, O.N., Ajuru, I. (2012). The effect of microcredit delivery on rural crop farmers in Rivers State, Nigeria. J. Voc. Edu. Tech., 9(2).
Tefera, D.A., Bijman, J., Slingerland, M.A. (2016). Agricultural co‐operatives in Ethiopia: evolution, functions and impact. J. Int. Dev., 29(4), 431–453. doi:10.1002/jid.3240
Ugbajah, M., Ugwumba, C. (2013). Analysis of Micro Credit as a Veritable Tool for Poverty Reduction among Rural Farmers in Anambra State, Nigeria. Disc. J. Agric. Food Sci., 1(10), 152–159.
Verhofstadt, E., Maertens, M. (2015). Can agricultural cooperatives reduce poverty? Heterogeneous impact of cooperative membership on farmers’ welfare in Rwanda. Appl. Econ. Pers. Pol., 37, 86–106.
Wooldridge, J.M. (2010). Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Wossen, T., Abdoulaye, T., Alene, A., Haile, M.G., Feleke, S., Olanrewaju, A., Manyong, V. (2017). Impacts of extension access and cooperative membership on technology adoption and household welfare. J. Rural Stud., 54, 223–233.
Zeng, D., Alwang, J., Norton, G.W., Shiferaw, B., Jaleta, M., Yirga, C. (2015). Ex post impacts of improved maize varieties on poverty in rural Ethiopia. Agric. Econ., 46(4), 515–526. doi:10.1111/agec.12178
Abebaw, D., Haile, M.G. (2013). The impact of cooperatives on agricultural technology adoption: empirical evidence from Ethiopia. Food Policy, 38, 82–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.10.003
Adeniyi, O.R., Ojo, O.A., (2013). Food Security Status of Rural Farming Households in Iwo, Ayedire and Ayedaade Local Government Areas of Osun State, South-western Nigeria. Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev., 13(5), 8209–8223.
Ahmed, M.H., Mesfin, H.M. (2017). The impact of agricultural cooperatives membership on the wellbeing of smallholder farmers: empirical evidence from eastern Ethiopia. Agric. Food Econ. 5(6), 1–20.
Aidoo, R., Mensah, J., Tuffor, T. (2013). Determinants of household food security in the Sekyere-afram plains district of Ghana. 1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference AIIC Azores, Portugal.
Akerele, D., Momoh, S., Aromolara, A.B., Oguntona, C.R.B., Shittu, A.M. (2013). Food Insecurity and Coping Strategies in South-West Nigeria. Food Sec., 5, 407–414.
Akpan, S. (2013). Determinants of credit access and demand among poultry farmers in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Am. J. Experi. Agri., 3, 293–307.
Akudugu, M.A. (2012). Estimation of the determinants of credit demand by farmers and supply by rural banks in Ghana’s upper east region. Asian J. Agric. Rural Dev., 2, 189–200.
Alao, T.B., Bamire, A.S., Kehinde, A.D. (2020). Gender analysis of agricultural financing in cocoa-based farming system in Oyo and Osun States of South Western Nigeria. Ghana J. Agric. Sci. 55(1), 34–42.
Babatunde, R.O., Omotesho, O.A., Olorunsanya, E.O., Owotoki, G.M. (2008). Determinants of vulnerability to food insecurity: A gender-based analysis of farming households in Nigeria. Indian J. Agric. Econ., 63(1), 1–10.
Babatunde, R.O., Omotosho, O.A., Sholotan, O.S. (2007). Factors influencing food security status of rural farming households in North Central Nigeria. Agric. J., 2(3), 351–357.
Bellemare, M.F., Novak, L. (2017). Contract farming and food security. Am. J. Agric. Econ., 99, 357–378.
Bogale, A., Shimelis, A. (2009). Household level determinants of food security in rural areas of Dire Dawa, Eastern Ethiopia. Afri. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev., 9(9), 1914–1926.
Brannen, C., (2010). An impact study of the Village Savings and Loan Association (VSLA) Program in Zanzibar, Tanzania (Unpublished master’s thesis). Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, U.S.A.
Caliendo, M., Kopeinig, S. (2008). Some practical guidance for the implementation of propensity score matching. J. Econ. Surv., 22(1), 31–72.
Chagwiza, C., Muradian, R., Ruben, R. (2016). Cooperative membership and dairy performance among smallholders in Ethiopia. Food Polic., 59, 165–173.
Cheng, E. (2006). The Demand for Micro-Credit as a Determinant for Microfinance Outreach – Evidence from China. Paper presented at ACESA 2006 Emerging China: Internal Challenges and Global Implications, Victoria University, Melbourne, July, 13–14.
Chikaire, J.U., Ani, A.O., Atoma, C.N., Tijjani, A.R. (2015). Extension services for effective agricultural risk management in Orlu agricultural zone of Imo State, Nigeria. Schol. J. Agric. Vet. Sci., 2(1A), 1–8.
Crepon, B., Duflo, E., Periente, W. (2014). Estimating the impact of Microcredit on those who take it up: Evidence from a randomized experience in Morocco. National Bureau of Economic Research, U.S.A.
Diagne, A., Zeller, M. (2001). Access to Credit and Its Impact in Malawi. Research Report No. 116. Washington D.C., USA: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
Duffour, K. (2011). Budget statement and economic policy of the government of Ghana. P.49. Ghana.
Duniya, K.P., Adinah, I.I. (2015). Probit analysis of cotton farmers’ accessibility to credit in northern Guinea savannah of Nigeria. Asian J. Agric. Ext., Econ. Soc., 4, 296–301.
Essien, U.A., Arene, C.J., Nweze, N.J. (2013). An investigation into credit receipt and enterprise performance among agro small scale agro based enterprises in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria? Int. J. Agric. Manag. Dev., 3(4), 245–258.
Estruk, O., Oren, M. (2014). Impact of household socio-economic factors on food security: Case of Adana, Turkey. Pakistan J. Nutr., 13(1), 1–6.
FAO (2005). FAO Warns World Cannot Afford Hunger. Retrieved from: www.fao.org./fao newsroom.
FAO (2008). The state of food and agriculture in Asia and the Pacific Asia and the Pacific Food Situation Update. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United State.
FAO (2010). The state of food insecurity in the World. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO (2012). The state of food insecurity in the World. The 2012 edition. Retrieved from: www.fao.org/docrep/016/13027e00.htm
FAO (2013). The state of food insecurity in the World. The multiple dimensions of food security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Fakiyesi, O.M. (2001). Encouraging Growth to reduce Poverty in Nigeria. Nig. Econ. Fin. Rev., 39(2), 61–91.
Fawehinmi, O.A., Adeniyi, O.R. (2014). Gender dimensions of food security status of households in Oyo State, Nigeria. Glob. J. Hum. Sci., 14(1), 7–15.
Francesconi, G.N., Ruben, R. (2012). The hidden impact of cooperative membership on quality management: A case study from the dairy belt of Addis Ababa. J. Ent. Org. Div., 1(1), 85–103.
Gibremichael, B.A. (2014). The role of agricultural coops in promoting food security and rural women’s empowerment in Eastern Tigray Region, Ethiopia. J. Dev. Coun. Stud., 4(11), 96–109.
Hamad, R., Lia, C., Fernald, L. (2010). Microcredit participation and nutrition outcomes among women in Peru. World J. Agric. Sci., 9(8), 56–59.
Hazarika, G., Guha-Khasnobis, B. (2008). Household Access to Microcredit and Children’s Food Security in Rural Malawi: A Gender Perspective. Washington D.C.: IFPRI.
Ibok, O.W. (2012). Analysis of food security and productivity of urban food crop farmers in Cross River State. Unpublished master’s thesis. University of Calabar, Nigeria.
Ibrahim, S.S., Aliero, H.M. (2012). An analysis of farmers’ access to formal credit in the rural areas of Nigeria. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 7, 6249–6253.
Idrisa, Y.I., Gwary, M.M., Shehu, H. (2008). Analysis of food security status among farming households in Jere local government of Borno State, Nigeria. J. Tropic. Agric. Food, Env. Ext., 7(3), 199–205.
Ijaiya, G.T., Abdulraheem, A. (2000). Commercial banks credits to the agricultural sector and poverty reduction in Nigeria: A calibration analysis. Nig. J. Agribiz. Rural Dev., 1(1), 143–157.
Khan, R.E.A., Hussain, T. (2011). Demand for formal and informal credit in agriculture: a case study of cotton growers in Bahawalpur. Interdis. J. Cont. Res. Bus., 2(10), 1–7.
Lecoutere, E. (2017). The impact of agricultural co-operatives on women`s empowerment: Evidence from Uganda. J. Coop. Org. Manag., 5, 14–27.
Ma, W., Abdulai, A. (2016). Does cooperative membership improve household welfare? Evidence from apple farmers in China. Food Pol., 58, 94–102.
Ma, W., Abdulai, A., Goetz, R. (2018). Agricultural cooperatives and investment in organic soil amendments and chemical fertilizer in China. Am. J. Agric. Econ,. 100, 502–520.
Mohamen, I. (2003). Access to formal and quasi-formal credit by small holder farmers and artisanal fishermen. A case of Zanzibar. Research Report on poverty alleviation. No. 03.6.
Mojo, D., Fischer, C., Degefa, T. (2017). The determinants and economic impacts of membership in coffee farmer cooperatives: recent evidence from rural Ethiopia. J. Rural Stud., 50, 84–94.
Nuryartono, N. (2007). Credit rationing of farm households and agricultural production: empirical evidence in the rural areas of central Sulawesi, Indonesia. J. Manag. Agribus., 4, 15–21.
Nwaru, J.C., Essien, U.A., Onuoha, R.E. (2011). Determinants of informal credit demand and supply among food crop farmers in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. J. Rural Com. Dev., 6(1), 129–139.
Odemenem, I.U., Obinne, C.P.O. (2010). Assessing the factors influencing the utilization of improved cereal crop production technologies by small scale farmers in Nigeria. Ind. J. Sci. Tech., 3(1), 180–183.
Okurut, F.N. (2006). Access to credit by the poor in South Africa: Evidence from household survey data 1995 and 2000. Stellenbosch Economic Working Paper: 13/06.
Olawale, S. (2018). Nigeria poverty statistics and poverty rate in Nigeria. Retrieved Aug 2020 from: http://www.naija-quest.com/Nigeria poverty statistics/
Ololade, R.A., Olagunju, F.I. (2013). Determinants of access to credit among rural farmers in Oyo State, Nigeria. Global J. Sci. Frontier Res. Agric. Vet. Sci., 13(2), 16–22.
Oluyole, K.A., Taiwo, O. (2016). Socio-economic Variables and Food Security Status of Cocoa Farming Households in Ondo State, Nigeria. Asian J. Agric. Ext. Econ. Soc., 9(1), 1–7.
Orewa, S.I., Iyangbe, C.O. (2009). The food security profile among the rural and low-income urban dweller in Nigeria. Am-Eurasia. J. Sci. Res., 4(4), 302–307.
Oxfam Canada (2012). Behind the brands – Cocoa Case Studies. Retrieved from: https://42kgab3z3i7s3rm1xf48rq44-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/btb-oxfam-cocoa-case-studies.pdf
Oyedele, G.A., Akintola, J.O., Rahji, M.A.Y., Omonona, B.T. (2009). Credit constrained condition of farm households and profitability of agricultural production in Nigerian agriculture. Agric. J., 4, 192–201.
Robins, J., Sued, M., Lei-Gomez, Q., Rotnitzky, A. (2007). Comment: performance of double robust estimators when “inverse probability” weights are highly variable. Stat. Sci. 544e559.
Rosenbaum, P.R. (2002). Observational studies. New York: Springer
Rosenbaum, P.R., Rubin, D.B. (1983). The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika, 70, 41–55.
Sebopetji, T.O., Belete, A. (2009). An application of probit analysis to factors affecting small-scale farmers’ decision to take credit: a case study of the Greater Letaba Local Municipality in South Africa. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 4, 718–723.
Shiferaw, B., Kassie, M., Jaleta, M., Yirga, C., (2014). Adoption of improved wheat varieties and impacts on household food security in Ethiopia. Food Pol., 44, 272–284, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.09.012
Tasie, C.M., Wonodi, J.O., Wariboko, O.N., Ajuru, I. (2012). The effect of microcredit delivery on rural crop farmers in Rivers State, Nigeria. J. Voc. Edu. Tech., 9(2).
Tefera, D.A., Bijman, J., Slingerland, M.A. (2016). Agricultural co‐operatives in Ethiopia: evolution, functions and impact. J. Int. Dev., 29(4), 431–453. doi:10.1002/jid.3240
Ugbajah, M., Ugwumba, C. (2013). Analysis of Micro Credit as a Veritable Tool for Poverty Reduction among Rural Farmers in Anambra State, Nigeria. Disc. J. Agric. Food Sci., 1(10), 152–159.
Verhofstadt, E., Maertens, M. (2015). Can agricultural cooperatives reduce poverty? Heterogeneous impact of cooperative membership on farmers’ welfare in Rwanda. Appl. Econ. Pers. Pol., 37, 86–106.
Wooldridge, J.M. (2010). Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Wossen, T., Abdoulaye, T., Alene, A., Haile, M.G., Feleke, S., Olanrewaju, A., Manyong, V. (2017). Impacts of extension access and cooperative membership on technology adoption and household welfare. J. Rural Stud., 54, 223–233.
Zeng, D., Alwang, J., Norton, G.W., Shiferaw, B., Jaleta, M., Yirga, C. (2015). Ex post impacts of improved maize varieties on poverty in rural Ethiopia. Agric. Econ., 46(4), 515–526. doi:10.1111/agec.12178
Kehinde, A., & Kehinde, M. (2020). The impact of credit access and cooperative membership on food security of rural house-holds in south-western Nigeria. Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development, 57(3), 255–268. https://doi.org/10.17306/J.JARD.2020.01337
Ayodeji Kehinde
Kehindeayodeji8@gmail.com
Obafemi Awolowo Unversity Ile-Ife Nigeria
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1931-6542
Obafemi Awolowo Unversity Ile-Ife Nigeria
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1931-6542
Mary Kehinde
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